978-1259870569 Chapter 8

Unlock access to all the studying documents.

View Full Document

Chapter 8: Culture, Communication, and Conflict

Martin, Experiencing Intercultural Communication, 6e

Chapter 8

Culture, Communication, and Conflict

Study Objectives

After studying the material in this chapter, students should be able to accomplish the following

objectives.

1. Identify and describe the characteristics of intercultural conflict.

2. Define interpersonal conflict and its characteristics.

3. Identify five different types of conflict.

4. List the basic principles of nonviolence.

5. Suggest some ways in which cultures differ in their views toward conflict.

6. Understand how people come by their conflict strategies.

7. Identify and describe four styles for dealing with intercultural conflict.

8. Discuss the relationship between ethnicity, gender and conflict communication.

9. Define social movements.

10. Explain why it is important to understand the role of the social and historical contexts in

intercultural conflicts.

11. Discuss some suggestions for dealing with intercultural conflicts.

Key Terms

• Accommodating style

• Anti-Americanism

• Conflict

• Direct approach

• Discussion style

• Dynamic style

• Emotionally expressive style

• Engagement style

• Facework

• Facilitated intergroup dialogue

• Incompatibility

• Indirect approach

• Intercultural conflict

• Interdependent

Chapter 8: Culture, Communication, and Conflict

Martin, Experiencing Intercultural Communication, 6e

• Intermediary

• International conflict

• Interpersonal conflict

• Mediation

• Pacifism

• Peacebuilding

• Political conflict

• Religious conflict

• Restraint style

• Social conflict

• Social movements

Detailed Chapter Outline

I. Introduction

• One thing to be sure of is that conflict is unavoidable. Conflicts are happening all around

the world, as they always have, and at many different levels. For example, conflicts can

happen on the interpersonal level, called interpersonal conflict.

• Interpersonal conflicts can also be intergenerational.

• Conflicts can also happen on a societal level, known as political conflict.

• An example of international conflict has been seen tensions between the United States,

Russia, and their allies being played out in the proxy war in Syria.

• Conflicts in one country can spill over into another—the thousands of refugees from Syria

(and Iraq and Afghanistan) fleeing to nearby and even distant countries, often encountering

violence and conflict in their new country.

• One conflict may have interpersonal, political, and international dimensions, dramatically

seen, for example, in clashes between migrants and residents in many European locales in

2015.

II. Characteristics of Intercultural Conflict

• Conflict is usually defined as involving a perceived or real incompatibility of goals,

values, expectations, processes, or outcomes between two or more interdependent

individuals or groups.

• One unique characteristic of intercultural conflict is that it tends to be more ambiguous

than intracultural conflict. Other characteristics involve language issues and contradictory

conflict styles.

Chapter 8: Culture, Communication, and Conflict

Martin, Experiencing Intercultural Communication, 6e

A. Ambiguity

• There is often some ambiguity in intercultural conflicts.

o People may be unsure of how to handle the conflict or of whether the conflict is

seen in the same way by the other person. And the other person may not even

think there is a conflict.

• However, often when people encounters ambiguity, they quickly resort to their default

style of handling conflict—the style they learned in their family.

o If one’s preferred way of handling conflict is to deal with it immediately but one

is already in a conflict with someone who prefers to avoid it, the conflict may

become exacerbated as both people retreat to their preferred styles.

B. Language Issues

• Language can sometimes lead to intercultural conflict, and it can also be the primary

vehicle for solving intercultural conflict.

• However, when people don’t know the language well, it is very difficult to handle

conflict effectively.

o At the same time, some silence is not necessarily a bad thing.

o Sometimes it provides a “cooling off” period during which the participants can

calm down and gather their thoughts.

C. Contradictory Conflict Styles

• In the maquiladoras, the biggest difference between U.S. Americans and Mexicans

seems to be in the way U.S. Americans express disagreement at management meetings.

o The Mexican managers tend to be more indirect and more polite in conflict

situations, whereas the U.S. American managers prefer to confront conflict

directly and openly.

III. Conflict Types and Contexts

• Perhaps if everyone agreed on the best way to view conflict, there would be less of it. The

reality is that different approaches to conflict may result in more conflict.

A. Types of Conflict

• Affective conflict occurs when individuals become aware that their feelings and

Chapter 8: Culture, Communication, and Conflict

Martin, Experiencing Intercultural Communication, 6e

emotions are incompatible.

• A conflict of interest describes a situation in which people have incompatible

preferences for a course of action or plan to pursue.

• Value conflict, a more serious type, occurs when people have differing ideologies.

• Cognitive conflict describes a situation in which two or more people become aware that

their thought processes or perceptions are in conflict.

• Goal conflict occurs when people disagree about a preferred outcome or end state.

B. The Importance of Context

• How people choose to manage conflict may depend on the particular context or

situation.

o Thus, the conflict context can be viewed in the following two ways:

▪ In terms of the actual situation in which the conflict happens

▪ As a larger societal context

IV. Influences on Conflict Management

• A key question is this: Is open conflict good or bad? That is, should conflict be welcomed

because it provides opportunities to strengthen relationships? Or should it be avoided

because it can only lead to problems for relationships and groups?

• Another key question is this: What is the best way to handle conflict when it arises? Should

individuals talk about it directly, deal with it indirectly, or avoid it? Should emotions be

part of the conflict resolution? Are expressions of emotions viewed as showing

commitment to resolving the conflict at hand? Or is it better to be restrained and solve

problems by rational logic rather than emotional expressiveness?

A. Cultural Values Influence

• How do cultural values influence conflict management? One way to answer this

question is to look at cultural variations in facework.

o Facework refers to specific communication strategies people use to “save” their

own or another person’s face and is a universal concept; how people “do”

facework varies from culture to culture and influences conflict styles.

o For example, people from individualistic societies tend to be more concerned with

saving their own face than another person’s, so they tend to use more direct

conflict management styles.

o In contrast, people from collectivistic societies tend to be more concerned with

preserving group harmony and with saving the other person’s face (and dignity)

Chapter 8: Culture, Communication, and Conflict

Martin, Experiencing Intercultural Communication, 6e

during conflict.

▪ They may use a less direct conversational style; protecting the other

person’s face and making him or her look good is considered a skillful

facework style.

B. Family Influences

• The ways in which people respond to conflict may be influenced by their cultural

background. More specifically, most people deal with conflict in the way they learned

while growing up—their default style.

• Conflict resolution strategies usually relate to how people manage their self-image in

relationships.

o They may prefer to preserve their own self esteem rather than help the other

person “save face.”

o They may prefer to sacrifice their own self-esteem in order to preserve the

relationship.

• Sometimes people try very hard to reject the conflict styles they saw their parents using.

• Family conflict can also arise from generational differences in immigrant families that

reflect intercultural differences.

C. Two Approaches to Conflict

• There are at least two primary ways that one can approach conflict. An individual can

be either direct or indirect, and can be either emotionally expressive or restrained.

o This direct/indirect approach to conflict is similar to the direct/indirect language

dimension.

• Some cultural groups think that conflict is fundamentally a good thing; these groups feel

that it is best to approach conflict very directly, because working through conflicts

constructively results in stronger, healthier, and more satisfying relationships.

• Similarly, groups that work through conflict can gain new information about members

or about other groups, defuse more serious conflict, and increase group cohesiveness.

o People who take this approach concentrate on using very precise language.

o The goal in this approach is to articulate the issues carefully and select the “best”

solution based on an agreed-upon set of criteria.

• However, many cultural groups view conflict as ultimately destructive for relationships.

o When conflict does arise, the strong spiritual value of pacifism dictates a

nonresistant response—often avoidance or dealing with conflict very indirectly.

o Also, these groups think that when members disagree they should adhere to the

consensus of the group rather than engage in conflict. In fact, members who

Chapter 8: Culture, Communication, and Conflict

Martin, Experiencing Intercultural Communication, 6e

threaten group harmony may be sanctioned.

• A second broad approach to conflict concerns the role of emotion in conflict. People

who value intense and overt displays of emotions during discussion of disagreement

rely on the emotionally expressive style.

• On the other hand, people who believe in the restraint style think that disagreements

are best discussed in an emotionally calm manner.

• These two approaches to conflict resolution reflect different underlying cultural values

involving identity and preserving self-esteem.

D. Intercultural Conflict Styles

• It is possible to combine the four dimensions discussed and come up with four different

conflict resolution styles that seem to be connected to various cultural groups: the

discussion style, the engagement style, the accommodating style, and the dynamic style.

o The discussion style combines the direct and emotionally restrained dimensions

and emphasizes a verbally direct approach for dealing with disagreements—to

“say what you mean and mean what you say.”

o The engagement style emphasizes a verbally direct and confrontational approach

to dealing with conflict. This style views intense verbal and nonverbal expression

of emotion as demonstrating sincerity and willingness to engage intensely to

resolve conflict.

o The accommodating style emphasizes an indirect approach for dealing with

conflict and a more emotionally restrained manner. People who use this style may

be ambiguous and indirect in expressing their views, thinking that this is a way to

ensure that the conflict “doesn’t get out of control.”

▪ People who think that interpersonal conflict provides opportunities to

strengthen relationships also use mediation, but mainly in formal settings.

For instance, people retain lawyers to mediate disputes, hire real estate

agents to negotiate commercial transactions, and engage counselors or

therapists to resolve or manage interpersonal conflicts.

o The dynamic style uses an indirect style of communicating along with a more

emotionally intense expressiveness. People who use this style may use strong

language, stories, metaphors, and use of third-party intermediaries.

• As with any generalization, however, it must be remembered that all conflict resolution

styles can be found in any one cultural group, and while cultural groups tend to prefer

one style over another, people must be careful not to stereotype.

o Also, these cultural differences may depend on a number of factors, including the

following:

▪ Whether regions have been historically homogeneous and isolated from

Chapter 8: Culture, Communication, and Conflict

Martin, Experiencing Intercultural Communication, 6e

other cultures

▪ The influence of colonization

▪ The immigration history of different cultural groups

E. Gender, Ethnicity, and Conflict

• People’s gender and ethnicity may influence how they handle conflict.

• Some research shows that men and women do tend to behave in stereotypical ways in

some contexts—men use a more engagement conflict style, whereas women use a more

accommodating style.

o This may reflect the fact that in many cultures, women are socialized to focus on

relationships and to be more accommodating and indirect in their interaction,

while men are socialized to be more competitive.

• Ethnicity may also influence conflict style.

o At least one study showed that Asian and Latino Americans tended to use

accommodating and third-party conflict styles more than African Americans and

Asian Americans also tended to use more accommodating conflict tactics than

European Americans.

F. Religion and Conflict

• Religious differences also can be an important source of conflict.

o Religious beliefs are often a source of very strongly held views that can cause

religious conflict with others who may not share those views.

o While not all people read the Bible in the same way, religious differences can

influence how people view their civic responsibilities and how to appropriately

respond.

V. Managing Intercultural Conflict

A. Productive Versus Destructive Conflict

• Given all the variations in how people deal with conflicts, what happens when there is

conflict in intercultural relationships? One option involves distinguishing between

productive and destructive conflict in at least four ways:

o First, in productive conflict, individuals or groups try to identify the specific

problem; in destructive conflict, they make sweeping generalizations and have

negative attitudes.

o Second, in productive conflict, individuals or groups focus on the original issue;

Chapter 8: Culture, Communication, and Conflict

Martin, Experiencing Intercultural Communication, 6e

in destructive conflict, they escalate the conflict from the original issues and

anything in the relationship is open for reexamination.

o Third, in productive conflict, individuals or groups direct the discussion toward

cooperative problem solving (“How can we work this out?”); in destructive

conflict, they try to seize power and use threats, coercion, and deception (“Either

you do what I want, or . . .”).

o Finally, in productive conflict, individuals or groups value leadership that stresses

mutually satisfactory outcomes; in destructive conflict, they polarize behind

single-minded and militant leadership.

B. Competitive Versus Cooperative Conflict

• Conflict often spirals into long-term negativity, with the conflicting parties establishing

a self-perpetuating, mutually confirming expectation.

• According to Morton Deutsch, the general tone of a relationship will promote certain

processes and acts.

• Exploration may be done in various ways in different cultures, but it has several basic

steps.

o The issue is put on hold

o Both parties explore other options.

o They delegate the problem to a third party.

VI. Understanding Conflict and Society

• Many intercultural conflicts can be better understood by looking at the social, economic,

historical, and political forces.

A. Social and Economic Forces

• Social conflict arises from unequal or unjust social relationships.

o Some experts say it’s just hooliganism—young undisciplined looters lashing out

against society. And some point out the religious element, describing the conflict

as rooted in Islamic discontent with the West, particularly in France, because

many of the rioters come from Islamic backgrounds.

• However, people need to look beyond religious or ethnic differences to economic,

political, and even historical contexts and emphasize the point that conflicts are often

more complicated than they first appear.

• Some experts said that it was more a lack of jobs than religious fanaticism that

motivated the riots and may have even contributed to the 2015 terrorist attacks in Paris.

Chapter 8: Culture, Communication, and Conflict

Martin, Experiencing Intercultural Communication, 6e

o On the other hand, to exclude other explanations is to insult the poor people who

didn’t riot (i.e., most of them).

• In addition to economic marginalization, many ethnic and racial minorities who rioted

feel excluded from French and English society.

o Unlike the United States and Canada, where there is a belief (not always realized)

that anyone can become American or Canadian, immigrants in France,

particularly of African heritage, can never really become French; they remain

forever on the margins.

• Similar conflicts can be seen in the United States as the disparity between the wealthy

and the poor steadily increases.

o The Occupy Wall Street protests in 2011 and 2012 drew attention to the “greed

and corruption” of the top 1 percent of the U.S. population that controls almost 50

percent of the country’s wealth.

• Some believe protests and even violence are ways that society can be forced to confront

social inequalities and begin the long process of improving the situation.

B. Historical and Political Forces

• Many derogatory words gain power from their historical usage and the legacy of

oppression that they reference.

• It is only through understanding the past that people can understand what it means to be

a member of a particular cultural group.

o For example, understanding the history of Ireland helps one understand the

meaning of Irish identity.

o Other examples of historical and political forces can be seen in international

conflicts over border disputes.

• Sometimes ongoing tensions between groups is not limited to those groups and draws in

others.

o For example, the conflict between the Israelis and the Palestinians is not limited to

those two groups.

• Another type of political influence on intercultural conflict is anti-Americanism.

o Anti-Americanism refers to the ideas, feelings, and sometimes actions against the

United States—most often against the U.S. government, although it can also refer

to the culture and people.

o Anti-Americanism is complex because it is a unifying perspective that crosses

many cultures in ways that many cultural values do not: Foreign policy decisions

by the U.S. government, like U.S. and NATO presence in the Middle East and

unmanned drone attacks on civilians in Pakistan and Afghanistan, have resulted in

anti-American sentiments in many parts of the world.

Chapter 8: Culture, Communication, and Conflict

Martin, Experiencing Intercultural Communication, 6e

• When people witness conflict, they often assume that it is caused by personal issues

between individuals. When people reduce conflict to the level of interpersonal

interaction, they lose sight of the larger social and political forces that contextualize

these conflicts.

C. Societal Responses to Conflict

• Some conflict may be motivated by a desire to bring about social change. In social

movements, individuals work together to bring about social change. They often use

confrontation as a strategy to highlight the injustices of the present system.

o For example, when African American students in Greensboro, North Carolina, sat

down at white-only lunch counters in the 1960s, they were pointing out the

injustices of segregation. Although the students were nonviolent, their actions

drew a violent reaction that, for many people, legitimized the claims of injustice.

o The women’s suffrage movement of the early twentieth century is another

example of a social movement, a mass effort to win women the right to vote in the

United States.

o Many contemporary social movements involve conflicts, including movements

against racism, sexism, and homophobia; movements to protect animal rights, the

environment, free speech, civil rights; and, recently, the Black Lives Matter

movement.

o College campuses are likely locations for much activism and a 2016 survey found

that the number of students who said there was a “very good chance” they would

participate in a protest while in college rose to 8.5 percent (up from 5.6 percent in

2014).

o There is, of course, no comprehensive list of existing social movements. They can

arise and fall apart, depending on the opposition they provoke, the media attention

they attract, and the strategies they use.

o Confrontation, then, can be seen as an opportunity for social change, and social

movements have also used violent forms of confrontation.

▪ Groups such as Action Directe in France; the Irish Republican Army; the

environmental group Earth First!; and independence movements in Corsica,

Algeria, Kosovo, and Chechnya have all been accused of using violence,

which tends to result in their being labeled as terrorists rather than simply

protesters.

• However, confrontation does not necessarily mean violence. Nonviolent sanctions like

strikes and boycotts confront and undermine the status quo. For example, in the

resistance to apartheid in South Africa, widespread boycotts and strikes put pressure on

white business owners, employers and government officials.

Chapter 8: Culture, Communication, and Conflict

Martin, Experiencing Intercultural Communication, 6e

• Even the suggestion of violence can be threatening to people.

D. Peacebuilding

• Some of the conflicts described in this chapter involve long standing and violent

intergroup conflicts that have lasted for decades, often between ethnic or religious

groups within the same geographic area (e.g., Palestinians and Israelis, Sunni and Shia

Muslims in Iraq and other countries, Hindus and Muslims in India, Serbs and Croats in

former Yugoslavia, Greeks and Turks in Cyprus).

• These conflicts—where neighbor or sometimes members of the same family are on

different sides—are particularly horrific and have devastating psychological effects,

often enduring for generations.

• After years of working with these types of conflicts, communication scholar Benjamin

Broome has developed a particularly effective type of dialogue group—facilitated

intergroup dialogue.

o Dialogue differs from conversation in that it focuses on the power of speaking and

being understood; it involves listening and speaking, not to persuade, but to

clarify—even to clarify and truly understand an opposing viewpoint.

• Intergroup dialogue is one of several strategies of peacebuilding (working toward

equilibrium and stability in a society so that new disputes do not escalate into violence

and war).

o The idea behind facilitated intergroup dialogue, and peacebuilding, is that

government leaders alone cannot negotiate a true peace in these types of conflict.

• The facilitated intergroup dialogue process usually begins with bringing together

members from the two sides—persons, often community leaders, who are interested in

working toward peace.

• Sometimes, presentations are made by each party describing their view of the conflict.

Then a three-phase systematic dialogue—an exchange of ideas and perceptions—is

conducted, facilitated by an impartial, third-party expert, like Ben Broome.

o The first step involves analyzing the current situation that affects peacebuilding

efforts, the second is building a collective vision for the future, and the final step

is developing a specific action plan to achieve peaceful collaboration.

• Third-party facilitator need to deal with cultural differences as per the following, when

conducting peacebuilding efforts.

o Between the two groups (e.g., Greek Cypriots tend to be more expressive than

Turks and so, monopolized some of the early dialogue sessions)

o Between the facilitator’s own cultural orientation and the culture orientation of

those involved in the discussion.

Chapter 8: Culture, Communication, and Conflict

Martin, Experiencing Intercultural Communication, 6e

E. Forgiveness

• Today, forgiveness is the strategy being used around the world to break the trap of

conflict.

o This means letting go of—not forgetting—feelings of revenge.

• It often includes an acknowledgement of feelings of hurt and anger and a need for

healing.

• Perhaps the most fundamental aspect of forgiveness is trying to let go of hostile feelings

and desire for revenge and retribution.

• Yet forgiveness is often complicated, as one can see in the case of Michael Lapsely, an

anti-apartheid chaplain who was targeted with a letter bomb in 1990 which took both

hands, an eye, and both eardrums.

Discussion Questions

1. Why is it important to understand the context in which an intercultural conflict occurs?

2. What are the characteristics of intercultural conflict?

3. How can people overcome conflict and put it behind them?

4. How do cultural values influence conflict management?

5. How can families and individuals restore relationships after hurtful interpersonal conflict?

6. Identify and provide examples of the five different types of conflict.

7. Should conflict be welcomed or avoided?

8. What are some gender and ethnic group conflict style differences?

9. How does your family handle conflict? Do you handle conflict in the same manner?

10. Identify an instance in which the conflict parties used direct or indirect approaches to

conflict resolution.

11. How might emotional expressiveness be interpreted in Chinese people versus the Amish?

12. What are some of the differences between constructive and destructive conflict?

13. Can you think of any local examples of religious conflict?

14. How might a competitive approach to conflict impact interpersonal relationships?

15. In what ways might economic forces influence conflict?

16. How do we escape the historical, political, and social forces that entrap us in conflict to

work toward a more peaceful society and world?

17. Identify a social movement that has brought about (or is bringing) social change in your

lifetime. What strategies were used? Were they effective?

18. What, in your opinion, is the possibility that the war in Iraq will result in historical

antagonism?

19. Is it possible to achieve peace?

20. Forgiveness is the strategy being used around the world to break the trap of conflict. Do

Chapter 8: Culture, Communication, and Conflict

Martin, Experiencing Intercultural Communication, 6e

you think this can be successful? Can you think of any examples of world conflicts in

which forgiveness could be the answer to bring peace?

Classroom Exercises and Chapter Activities

1. Guest Lecture on Cultures in Conflict Exercise: The purpose of this exercise is to acquaint

students with a cultural conflict and the history of that conflict. You should invite a speaker

who has studied a particular cultural conflict between national or local cultural groups and

who can provide students with an update of the current situation as well as explain the

history of the conflict and the relations between the two groups. For example, you might

invite a professor from the political science department who has comprehensive knowledge

about issues like the political conflict in Kosovo. Have students write a two- to three-

paragraph analysis describing what conflict styles are in play and what each side might

need to do to resolve the conflict.

2. Intercultural Conflict Role-Plays: This exercise encourages students to practice various

strategies for managing or resolving intercultural conflict. Form students into groups.

Instruct each group to develop a scenario that depicts an intercultural conflict, which they

should then resolve using one of the styles discussed in the textbook. Each group can then

perform their role-play in front of the class, and the class can try to guess which conflict

strategy the group enacted. After each role-play, the actors should remain at the front of the

class to answer any questions or offer any comments they may have about their role-play.

3. Alternative to Intercultural Conflict Role-Plays: Have the students enact their role-plays

without offering a strategy or resolution to their scenario. The class can then try to answer

the following questions about the scenario:

o Is this productive or destructive conflict?

o Is this competitive or cooperative conflict?

o What strategies could the persons in the role-play employ to manage the conflict?

(Students could even try the suggested strategy to test its appropriateness.)

4. Identifying One’s Preferred Style of Managing Conflict Exercise: Often, people’s preferred

style of dealing with conflicts is based (perhaps unconsciously) on the style they saw

modeled as children. This exercise is designed to help students identify their preferred style

of dealing with conflict by reflecting on the style(s) they grew up with or the style that

stands out for them. Begin the exercise by asking students to reflect on the style of conflict

they were most exposed to as children. Instructors may need to suggest to students to think

about specific instances in which a conflict arose in their family and the way it was

Chapter 8: Culture, Communication, and Conflict

Martin, Experiencing Intercultural Communication, 6e

handled. For instance, in one family, every time there was a conflict, a loud shouting match

ensued, and then everybody went to their rooms for a nap. When they all awoke, the family

members acted as if the conflict had never happened. After the students identify the style(s)

of handling conflict to which they were exposed, ask them to reflect on whether this is their

preferred style as adults or whether they have consciously or unconsciously changed their

preferred style. Debrief this exercise by asking students to share their answers, which will

expose the class to various styles. The discussion that follows should be respectful of the

different styles of dealing with conflict that emerge, and you should urge students to think

more about the implications of these styles, rather than dichotomizing them in terms of

right or wrong.

5. Alternative to Identifying One’s Preferred Conflict Style: Have students take one of the

free online conflict inventories that provide printable results: (1) Kraybill’s Conflict

Response Inventory http://mediationchannel.com/2006/08/17/free-review-copies-of–

kraybill-conflict-style-inventory-now-available-to-trainers/; Adult Personal Conflict Style

Inventory: http://www.uuasouthernregion.org/images/ADULT-PERSONAL-CONFLICT-

STYLE-INVENTORY.pdf; Or to receive training in the use of Mitch Hammer’s

Intercultural Conflict Inventory http://www.icsinventory.com/about-us/our-

people/Mitchell-R.-Hammer-Ph.D. Contact the Intercultural Communication Institute,

8835 SW Canyon Lane, Portland, OR 97225, 503-297-4622.

6. Attitudes toward Conflict Exercise: As a first step to understanding and managing conflict,

students need to become aware of their personal feelings toward conflict. In this simple

exercise, ask students to write down the first words that come to mind when they think of

conflict. Then, ask them to share some of their words with the class and write them on the

board. After a few minutes, ask the students to reflect on the words written on the board

and share their thoughts. One of the most powerful observations that comes out of this

exercise is the negative feeling people have about conflict. Another important observation

is that often, the behaviors for managing conflict are negative or destructive, such as

hatred, yelling at someone, or hitting someone. Once students have had an opportunity to

explore their attitudes toward conflict, you can introduce alternate, positive views of

conflict.

7. Dealing with Everyday Conflict: Since the majority of students will confront intercultural

conflict on a small scale, have them identify how the various styles of conflict resolution

might be appropriate in responding to small conflict events, such as those involving

prejudicial statements and actions. Be sure to focus on the ramifications to the relationship

as well as the resolution of the issue at hand for each conflict style. This can be role played,

but it can also make for an excellent class discussion.

Martin, Experiencing Intercultural Communication, 6e

8. Case Study Analysis: Have students form small groups and discuss and analyze case

studies that involve intercultural conflict and misunderstandings. Such case studies can be

located in the news, in a variety of intercultural training, and in resource books available

through Intercultural Press. A few comprehensive sources would include: Conflict across

Cultures: A Unique Experience of Bridging Difference’s by Michelle LeBaron and

Venashri Pillay; The Art of Crossing Cultures, by Craig Sorti; and Exploring Culture:

Exercises, Stories, and Synthetic Cultures, by Gert Jan Hofstede, Paul B. Pedersen and

Geert Hofstede. Be sure to debrief the discussions by having students apply what they

know about conflict resolution values and conflict style.