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Chapter 12: Intercultural Communication and Education

Martin, Experiencing Intercultural Communication, 6e

Chapter 12

Intercultural Communication and Education

Study Objectives

After studying the material in this chapter, students should be able to accomplish the following

objectives.

1. Understand the role of culture in setting educational goals. Note how colonization

influences educational goals and curricula. Explain how colonization might influence

study-abroad programs.

2. Understand the ways that different cultural groups were educated and the purposes of those

different experiences. Be able to identify the educational goals of different types of

minority-serving institutions and women’s institutions.

3. Explain how different cultural role expectations can influence classroom communication.

Note that different cultures may use different grading systems.

4. Explain how power differences can influence communication in educational contexts.

5. Describe the complexities of affirmative action and reverse discrimination.

6. Understand how cultural identities are formed in the educational process.

7. Be able to describe some social issues that arise in education.

Key Terms

• Afrocentric

• Alaska Native and Native Hawaiian-Serving Institution

• Asian American Native American Pacific Islander-Serving Institution

• Bullying

• Colonial educational system

• Eurocentric

• HBCUs

• Hispanic-Serving Institutions

• International students

• Learning styles

• Minority-Serving Institution

• Native American-Serving Nontribal Institution

• Reverse discrimination

• Study-abroad programs

Chapter 12: Intercultural Communication and Education

Martin, Experiencing Intercultural Communication, 6e

• Teaching styles

• Tribal Colleges or Universities

Detailed Chapter Outline

I. Introduction

One common approach to studying other cultures has been to focus on studying the language and

literature of another culture. But the intercultural competence to learn how to communicate

effectively with others who have very different experiences—in the society and around the

globe—is not easily taught.

• Education is an important context for intercultural communication, since students and

teachers come from a variety of cultural backgrounds and bring a variety of expectations to

the classroom.

• Educational institutions may be structured differently within different cultures, but they

remain one of the most important social institutions for advancement in any society.

• If educators and students communicate in ways that are not sensitive to cultural differences

in the educational institution, these same institutions may end up reproducing the social

inequality of U.S. society.

• Despite the reduction in barriers to college admissions based upon race, minority

enrollments are decreasing. Improved intercultural communication practices can only help

alleviate this problem.

• Further, many students are international students, meaning that they come to the United

States or go abroad to study.

II. Educational Goals

• Education is widely perceived to be an important avenue for advancement in society. Yet,

beyond the basic skills of reading, writing, and arithmetic, people need to think about the

educational goals that various cultures establish.

• There is no universal curriculum that all students follow.

o Not surprisingly, educational goals for different cultural groups are largely driven by

members’ need to know about themselves and their society.

o One’s education necessarily frames one’s worldviews and the particular ways of

knowing.

• Education, however, is not driven simply by the desire to teach and learn about ourselves.

In colonial contexts, for example, the colonial power often imposed its own educational

goals and system upon the colonized.

o In so doing, this colonial educational system served educational goals that differed

Chapter 12: Intercultural Communication and Education

Martin, Experiencing Intercultural Communication, 6e

from what the colonized might have valued.

▪ This displacement of educational goals had a tremendous impact upon the ways

that these former colonial societies were formed.

III. Studying Abroad

• One might have encountered international students in one’s classes, and one might know

American students who have gone abroad to study and to experience another culture.

• In fact, many universities offer study-abroad programs to give their students

international experiences. However, study-abroad opportunities are not equally available or

taken advantage of by all students.

• Because the cultural norms in different educational settings vary widely, international

students engage directly in issues relevant to intercultural communication.

• Many students from former European colonies study at institutions in the former

colonizing nation.

o For example, Indonesian students may study in the Netherlands, Indian students may

study in Britain, and Lebanese students may study in France.

IV. Culturally Specific Education

• The development of Minority-Serving Institutions (MSIs) is also relevant to intercultural

communication, as their history and mission can be quite different from other institutions.

o For example, the Morrill Act of 1890 established what are today known as HBCUs,

or historically Black colleges and universities. Alabama State, Delaware State, South

Carolina State, Tennessee State, Grambling State, and Howard are all examples of

HBCUs.

• The following are the other types of MSIs:

o Hispanic-Serving Institutions (HSIs), which must have at least 25 percent Hispanic

students and include institutions such as California State University, Bakersfield, and

Texas State University.

o Tribal Colleges or Universities, which are typically controlled by a federally

recognized tribe or otherwise categorized as such under federal law, such as Diné

College, which is run by the Navajo Nation.

o Native American-Serving Nontribal Institutions, which are higher education

institutions not run by a tribe but with at least 10 percent Native American

enrollment, such as Montana State University-Northern and Northeastern Oklahoma

A & M College.

o Alaska Native and Native Hawaiian Serving Institutions (ANSIs and NHSIs),

which are institutions with at least 20 percent Alaska Native students or at least 10

Chapter 12: Intercultural Communication and Education

Martin, Experiencing Intercultural Communication, 6e

percent Native Hawaiian students, such as the University of Alaska Southeast at

Sitka and Chaminade University of Honolulu.

o Asian American and Native American Pacific Islander-Serving Institutions

(AANAPISIs), which must have at least 10 percent Asian American or Native

American Pacific Islander student enrollment and at least 50 percent of students are

economically disadvantaged, such as the University of Guam and the University of

Hawai’i at Hilo.

• In addition to the many cultural communities that already exist in the United States,

immigrants bring new challenges to the education system.

o In 2001, the DREAM Act was first introduced into the U.S. Senate.

▪ Also known as the Development, Relief, and Education for Alien Minors, this

act would allow immigrants who were brought to the United States as children

a pathway to permanent residency by either attending a higher education

institution or serving in the U.S. military for at least two years and receiving an

honorable discharge without any criminal activities.

• Another issue that stems from immigration is the issue of bilingual education. Again,

different states have taken different paths to working with students who do not speak

English.

• Religious educational institutions are another site where cultural values can influence the

educational experience.

• Some religious groups have established educational institutions to further their values in

the educational context. Like gender and race, religion can also shape the educational

experiences of students.

V. Intercultural Communication in Educational Settings

• Much of the communication behavior in the classroom is not interpreted in the way it’s

intended to be by people from different cultural backgrounds. Education is deeply

embedded in culture, and people’s expectations for the educational process are a part of

their culture.

A. Roles for Teachers and Students

• The culture clash over learning styles (the different ways that students learn in different

cultures) and teaching styles (the styles that instructors use to teach) is common as

students increasingly travel to study in other cultures.

• In many universities, for example, students are assigned books to read before the end of

the term and take one exam at the end of the term, rather than getting a structured

reading list and assignments along the way.

Chapter 12: Intercultural Communication and Education

Martin, Experiencing Intercultural Communication, 6e

B. Grading and Power

• In the United States, posting grades in this manner would be a violation of the Family

Educational Rights and Privacy Act of 1974, also known as the Buckley Amendment.

Students’ grades are considered private information.

• As in any other social setting, the classroom is embedded with cultural expectations

about power relations. While there may always be a power difference in the

communication between instructors and students, this difference can be greater or lesser

in various cultures.

• In the United States, for example, the relationships between instructor and students tend

to be less formal than in other cultures.

• Notions of “fair” and “unfair” are culturally embedded as well. The grading system in

the U.S. is far from universal. Different cultures use different ways of evaluating student

work.

C. Admissions, Affirmative Action, and Standardized Tests

• Debates over university admissions are not new. Because university resources are

expensive and limited, admissions to universities are competitive.

• Because of the economic importance of university degrees, admissions are important in

empowering and disempowering cultural groups. Thus, many people struggled to break

down barriers to university admissions that were based on nonacademic factors such as

race.

• Today, universities do not deny admission based on race.

o Today, most universities do not discriminate based upon race, and many other

characteristics.

• In order to overcome some of the historical as well as contemporary reasons that have

led to student bodies that do not reflect the demographic profiles of society at large, the

civil rights movement led to the establishment of affirmative action policies.

o These policies encouraged institutions to act affirmatively to ensure a more

representative student body.

• The emergence of the notion of reverse discrimination, or policies that disadvantage

Whites and/or males, has become a rhetorical strategy to argue for more spaces for

those dominant groups.

• In contrast to the current downplaying of the importance of standardized tests in the

U.S. college admissions, China places even greater emphasis on tests. This emphasis on

these exams has tended to tilt college admissions in favor of those students from more

elite backgrounds.

Chapter 12: Intercultural Communication and Education

Martin, Experiencing Intercultural Communication, 6e

• More recently, changes in the student body profile have led some admissions officers to

give preference to men over women. Preferential admissions are not only about racial

differences.

• The reality is that because young men are rarer, they’re more valued applicants. Today,

two-thirds of colleges and universities report that they get more female than male

applicants, and more than 56 percent of undergraduates nationwide are women.”

VI. Communication, Education, and Cultural Identity

• Even teachers who are not overtly racist may not have received the kind of education

necessary to incorporate materials into the curriculum that reflect the diversity of their

students. Nor have they been able to develop this curriculum.

• The issue about the key role of education in creating one’s identities was highlighted by

James Loewen’s best-selling book Lies My Teacher Told Me.

o Japan has come under critique for the content of its history textbooks as well,

particularly by South Korea and China. Both of these nations experienced Japan’s

militarism prior to Japan’s pacificism after World War II.

VII. Social Issues and Education

• Many social issues are played out in the educational context and can influence the

educational experiences of students. Schools and colleges are never outside of the societies

and social attitudes in which they exist.

• Although bullying is not necessarily an intercultural interaction, it can be exacerbated by

cultural differences.

o Many other students have experienced bullying and some have gone on to commit

suicide. Because school attendance is compulsory, the bullied students are required

to see their bullies day after day.

• Racial intolerance is another important area where social issues arise can affect the

educational experiences of international students.

• While much of the scholarly literature on international students has focused on adaptation

issues, some of the encounters can be difficult because of the intolerance of the host

culture.

• In the United States, the challenges of tolerance and intolerance can be an issue as well.

• As the world grows smaller, it is important to strive to become a global citizen by profiting

from one’s interactions with others who are different. Education is one crucial site where

this can happen.

• As noted earlier, the development of educational institutions, as well as the educational

process itself, is deeply embedded in any culture. As students and instructors meet in the

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Martin, Experiencing Intercultural Communication, 6e

classroom, cultural differences can lead to misunderstandings in communication.

• It is important to recognize that the educational process reflects cultural power.

• It is important to recognize that the structure of educational institutions, as opposed to the

people in them, often plays a significant role in the way that power functions.

• Some colleges require history or literature courses, but the history and literature that they

teach might be Eurocentric, focusing on European or Western views of history and

literature.

• However, a Eurocentric approach to education can create barriers to intercultural

communication.

o One response to this problem is to teach Afrocentric history, which centers on the

African rather than the European experience and exposes African American students

to an entirely different view of the world and their place in it.

Discussion Questions

1. If only 25 percent of Americans have a four-year college degree, why is there so much

controversy over admissions and curricula?

2. What views of history did you study in high school? Latino, African-American, or

European-American?

3. What are the pros and cons of studying in another country?

4. Why did you choose the current school you are studying in and not any other? On what

criteria did you base your choice?

5. What might be some of the advantages and disadvantages of attending a college or

university geared toward a particular cultural group?

6. How does education affect nondominant cultural communities?

7. What are the expected roles for teachers and students in your school?

8. How can cultural differences and expectations based on students’ and teachers’ roles create

confusion?

9. Based on your culture, what are the views regarding speaking up in class, questioning a

grade you have received in a test, or receiving a high grade?

10. Does education provide an equal opportunity for all students? Why, or why not?

11. What are some of the intercultural communication issues that should be considered in

education? Why?

12. What cultural differences might create problems at your school? What has been or could be

done about them?

13. How might being educated within the framework of the colonizer’s educational system

affect one’s cultural identity?

14. Should the student body at a university or college closely reflect the demographics of the

local or the national population? Why?

Martin, Experiencing Intercultural Communication, 6e

15. What languages may become important to learn, in order to improve communications?

16. Should you study Arabic? Will the Middle East become even more important in the future

as oil becomes scarce? Or will alternative fuels decrease our relationships there?

17. How might you best position yourself to work in a rapidly changing global communication

environment?

18. In 2010, the Texas Board of Education approved new guidelines that highlight Republican

historical contributions, as well as conservative philosophies. Since history and other social

studies are never “neutral,” how should decisions be made about what to include and what

to exclude?

19. Given the increasing use and importance of the Internet, will students seek out other

histories and other views? Or will they stick with the information in their school

textbooks?

Classroom Exercises and Chapter Activities

1. International Student Exploration Exercise: The purpose of this small-group exercise is for

students to consider the challenges and benefits of studying in another country. Assign

students to small groups and ask them to decide on a place where they would like to study.

Then, have them create a list of challenges and benefits of studying in that country and to

explain why they chose that particular country. After about 20 minutes, bring the class

together and have each group share one item on its list. Depending on the duration of the

class, continue to have students share their items. The items will be surprisingly similar

regardless of where the students chose to study, and you may want to point this out to the

students.

2. International Student Exploration Assignment: After students have completed the previous

exercise, have them, individually or in small groups, pick a country where they would like

to study. Students should research their chosen location and write a three-page paper

focusing on the challenges and benefits raised in the previous exercise and any others they

deem important. They can gather useful information about their destination from tourist

bureaus, travel books, books that focus on specific cultures, and international student

exchange programs. They can even interview someone who is an international exchange

student and, if possible, someone from the country they have chosen for this assignment.

Depending on the duration and size of the class, have students present what they learned.

3. College Catalogue Comparison Assignment: Ask students to go to their college or

university library or website and take a look at a recent catalog of course offerings,

particularly those in the history and literature departments. Have students read the course

descriptions for one of these disciplines. Next, have them look at one of the college

Chapter 12: Intercultural Communication and Education

Martin, Experiencing Intercultural Communication, 6e

catalogs for a historically Black, women’s, or Native-American college or university on the

Internet and read course descriptions for classes offered in the same department (history or

literature). Ask students to compare the courses offered by the two schools. Then, have

them write a two- to three-page paper answering the following questions:

• Are the course offerings the same, or are they different? How do they differ?

• Do the offered courses specifically focus on African American or women’s issues?

(This will depend on which type of institution they choose.)

• Which curriculum or set of classes would best reflect your cultural identity and

experiences? Why?

• What do the course offerings from each college/university say about the educational

goals of each institution?

4. College Catalogue Comparison Exercise Variation I: Instead of having students research

college catalogs, break the class into small groups and give each group two lists of course

offerings from two different colleges or universities. One list could be from their own

institution and the other from a historically Black colleges and university (HBCU),

women’s, or Native-American institution (many college/university course offerings can be

found on the Internet). Instead of having students write a paper, provide them with the

suggested list of questions and have them answer these questions in small groups. Be sure

that one group member from each group records their answers. After 20 minutes or so,

bring the class together and have groups share their findings. This could lead to a

discussion focusing on culturally specific education and its relevance to intercultural

communication.

5. Hidden Histories: Acquire different textbooks (high school texts are desirable because they

reflect the exposure of a broader segment of our society). In groups, have students skim

through and discuss the histories both privileged and hidden by the text. Of course, if they

are unaware of certain histories, you may need to guide them. Look for experiences and

contributions of various ethnicities such as Asian-American, Muslim-American, African-

American, etc. Students should share their findings with the class.

6. The Educational History of Native Americans and White Americans: A particularly

powerful example of how education affects a culture can be found in the histories of many

Native-American groups. Have your students discover this history and its effects. They

may find topics like boarding schools, the “lost” generation, lack of parenting skills, or

accounts of being beaten for speaking their own language. Instructors should have some

background information in this area.