Unlock document.
This document is partially blurred.
Unlock all pages and 1 million more documents.
Get Access
1
Chapter 7
Creative and Critical Thinking in the Small
Group
Summary
Creative and critical thinking is at the heart of effective group decision making, and this chapter
is designed to show students the specific steps that are important for creative and critical
thinking. The concept of critical thinking is broken down into manageable components so that
students can understand it better. In addition, students should be able appreciate the amount of
effort required for individuals and groups to think critically and creatively.
Chapter Objectives
After reading this chapter, students should be able to accomplish the following objectives:
1. Define creative thinking, and explain why it is important to small group problem solving.
2. Describe brainstorming, synectics, and appreciative inquiry, and explain how they can be
used to help enhance group creativity.
3. Define critical thinking, and explain why it is important to small group problem solving.
4. List and describe the attitudes most conducive to critical thinking in a group.
5. Explain how group members should use critical thinking during the information-gathering
stage of problem solving.
6. Describe and give examples of each of the five steps crucial to evaluating information.
7. Define and give examples of each of the five reasoning errors: overgeneralizations, attacks
on a person instead of the argument, confusing causal relationships, either-or thinking, and
incomplete comparisons.
Sample Lecture Notes
Case Study: Ozarks Greenways, Inc.
• There are two processes essential for problem solving in small groups: creative and critical
thinking. Both kinds of thinking are necessary for effective discussion groups; neither one
alone is sufficient to ensure effective solutions.
• Group members must learn when to be creative, when to be critical, and what kinds of
procedures help the group do both.
2
I. What is Creative Thinking?
• Creative thinking encourages the use of hunch, intuition, insight, and fantasy to promote
creativity.
• Groups are major sources of creative ideas and innovations.
• Group creativity is both divergent and convergent.
o During divergent thinking, ideas should vary.
o In convergent thinking, ideas should come together.
• For a group to be creative, both individual and group creativity are needed.
• Creative individuals tolerate ambiguity, have low levels of communication apprehension,
and aren’t afraid to violate societal norms and rules.
• Groups need a balance of individual openness and divergence/convergence.
• Groups are creative when they are relaxed and having a good time.
• Group creativity is facilitated by four group norms: diversity, discussion rules, climate, and
environment.
II. Enhancing Group Creativity
• Groups engage in a process to discover innovative solutions.
A. Brainstorming
• Brainstorming is defined as a procedure designed to tap members’ creativity by asking
them to generate as many ideas as possible without evaluation.
• The basic brainstorming guidelines are listed below.
o The group previews the rules for brainstorming.
o The group is presented with a problem to solve.
o Members are encouraged to come up with as many solutions as possible to the
problem.
▪ Quantity is the goal.
▪ No evaluation is permitted during brainstorming.
▪ Don’t stop generating ideas too soon.
o All suggestions are recorded for the group to see.
o The ideas are evaluated at another session.
• There are several variations in brainstorming, such as brainwriting and electronic
brainstorming.
B. Synectics
• Synectics is defined as a procedure designed to stimulate creative thinking by using
3
metaphors and looking for similarities in different things.
• A variety of orientations can help trigger insights.
o Changing perspective
o Looking for a direct comparison
o Temporarily suspending reality
C. Appreciative Inquiry
• Appreciative inquiry is defined as a technique that focuses on the strengths of an
organization or situation and seeks to build on those strengths.
• There are four phases to appreciative inquiry, each providing a specific focus.
o Discover: What is working well?
o Dream: Imagine what could be.
o Design: How can one translate the dream into a reality?
o Destiny: How will one create what one wants to achieve?
III. What Makes Thinking “Critical”?
• Critical thinking is systematic thinking that uses evidence, reasoning, and logic to promote
soundness.
• Evidence is defined as the facts, data, opinions, and other information that back a claim or
conclusion.
• Arguments are defined as claims supported by evidence and reasoning.
IV. Enhancing Critical Thinking in a Group
• Class Discussion: Use the Case 7.2 on page 164 to explore the importance of critical
thinking in groups.
A. Having the Right Attitude
• Critical thinkers are open-minded, or willing to consider new information and ideas,
even if they contradict previous beliefs.
• Another important attitude is to have a sense of “show me” skepticism that indicates
members want to think for themselves.
• Skeptical decision makers ask probing questions. These are designed to help critical
thinking by examining information and reasoning in more depth.
• Critical thinking is an active (rather than passive) process of testing information.
B. Gathering Information
4
• The ability to organize ideas is a skill essential to critical thinking.
Assessing Information Needs
• Before individuals begin their research, they need to assess the following needs:
o Take stock of existing information.
o Identify holes and weaknesses.
o Make a master list of the information needed and where it can be found.
o Collect needed resources by assigning members specific responsibilities.
o Use all appropriate information gathering techniques.
Collecting Needed Resources
• A variety of information is needed and will have to be gathered in various ways.
Some of ways to gather information are as follows:
o Direct observation
o Reading
o The Internet
o Electronic databases
o Interviews
o Other sources
C. Evaluating Information
Determining the Meaning of What Is Being Said
Distinguishing Fact from Opinion and Inference
• Facts are defined as descriptions that can be verified by observation and are not
arguable.
• Opinions are defined as inferences that go beyond facts and contain some degree
of probability.
Identify and Clarify Ambiguous Terms
• The term “ambiguous” is applied to a term that has more than one possible
meaning.
Evaluating Opinions by Determining the Credibility of the Source
5
• Ask key questions to help decide how much trust to place in an opinion.
o Is there any reason to suspect that the person(s) supplying the opinion is
biased?
o Is the individual or the other source a recognized expert on the subject?
o Is the opinion consistent with other opinions expressed by the same source?
Assessing the Accuracy and Worth of the Information
• What types of evidence are offered to support the argument?
• Is the information based on the testimony of a number of experts in the field?
• Is the information based on valid scientific or statistical reasoning?
• Class Discussion: Use the “Ethical Dilemma” textbox on page 178 to explore the
importance of research to group decision making.
D. Checking for Errors in Reasoning
• Fallacies are defined as faulty reasoning and mistakes in reasoning.
Overgeneralizing
• Overgeneralizing is defined as a conclusion with insufficient supporting data.
• To decide whether a generalization is a valid conclusion or an overgeneralization,
ask a few questions.
o How many cases is the conclusion based on?
o Are there any exceptions to the conclusion?
o What form of evidence is the source asking an individual to accept: personal or
other forms?
o Is the generalization expressed as probability or in “allness” terms?
Attacking a Person Instead of the Argument
• Attacking a person instead of the argument moves the focus from the issue to the
speaker.
Confusing Causal Relationships
• Confusing causal relationships suggests that A necessarily causes B, but in reality, A
and B are relational and not causal.
Either-Or Thinking
6
• Either-or thinking is defined as asking members to choose between only two options,
as if no other choices existed.
Incomplete Comparisons
• Incomplete comparisons ask the audience to stretch a similarity too far.
• Comparisons and analogies help the audience to understand.
• Analogies are comparisons that help clarify ideas and issues.
E. Avoiding Groupthink
Symptoms of groupthink
• The group overestimates its power and morality.
• The group becomes closed-minded.
• The group members experience pressure to conform.
Preventing groupthink
• Encourage members to “kick the problem around” before they start focusing on a
solution.
• Establish a norm of critical evaluation.
o Have a designated devil’s advocate.
o A devil’s advocate is a person who has been assigned the task of arguing
against a popular proposal.
• Prevent leaders from stating preferences at the beginning of a group’s session.
• Prevent insulation of the group.
• Class Discussion: Use the “Case” textbox on page 186 to discuss an example of
groupthink.
Learning Activities
1. We have found that the “Letters to the Editor” columns of newspapers and magazines often
provide many excellent examples of errors in reasoning. Ask your students to clip
examples and bring them to class for discussion. Have them first determine what the author
wants the reader/listener to do, what is being claimed, and what evidence is presented to
back up the claim. Then, ask them to identify the errors in reasoning. This activity works
well as a small group activity, especially the identification of errors in reasoning. Students
usually enjoy helping each other poke holes in the claims and evidence offered.
8
prepare a classroom presentation on a topic of interest. This may be a current event topic
(such as “How can medical costs be contained?”) or a topic of specific relevance to a small
group communication (such as “What effect does gender have in the small group?”). This
type of project lends itself to the kind of information presented in Chapter 5. If you choose
this project for your class, you can tailor the information in Chapter 5 to coincide with the
activities of your classroom groups.
Several possibilities are as follows:
a. Ask each group to make a detailed list or outline of the current information members
have about their topic; then, identify the information gaps that need to be filled.
b. Ask each group to brainstorm strategies for how they will plug their information
gaps. Encourage them to be creative and to think of ways to gather information other
than simply visiting the library.
c. Ask the students to select one or two items of information they have gathered (a
magazine, a newspaper article, a printed interview, a recording of a personal
interview, or a videotape of a relevant television show) and evaluate the information
on the basis of the guidelines presented in the chapter. For example, students should
ask themselves the following questions: What is the source saying? What evidence is
presented to support the claim? Why do the students believe the source is credible or
not credible? How valuable and relevant is the information to their chosen topic?
d. Ask the students to select one or two items of information that express specific
opinions regarding the topic. (For example, if the topic is “Should parents be able to
choose which public or private school their children may attend?” students should try
to find an article that supports school choice and one that opposes it.) Then, ask the
students to check the article for errors in reasoning. They should try to find as many
“holes” in the argument as possible by looking for errors of overgeneralizing, ad
hominem attacks, inappropriate statements of causal relationships, either-or thinking,
incomplete comparisons, or assertions presented without evidence.
e. Ask each member of the group to rate himself or herself and then rate each group
member on the behaviors that are counterproductive to critical thinking.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Completely Completely
impulsive systematic
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
9
Completely dependent on Completely
authority figures independent
of authority figures
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Completely Completely lacking
confident in confidence
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Completely Completely
dogmatic open-minded
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Completely unwilling to Completely
try to think critically willing to
try to think critically
Ask the students to focus on the specific behaviors that led them to rate themselves and
the others as they did, and have them share their ratings with each other.
7. Ask students to complete the following Personal Report of Communication Apprehension
(PRCA-24) Scale that gives the students information about their degree of communication
apprehension in a variety of situations. Of particular relevance are the “group” and
“meeting” scales. This may be followed by a discussion in small groups that focuses on
each person’s feelings about communicating in groups. It may also be followed by a class
lecture/discussion on communication apprehension. A good resource for developing such a
lecture may be found in “Communication Apprehension and Small Group
Communication,” by James C. McCroskey and Virginia Richmond in Small Group
Communication: A Reader, 5th ed., eds. Robert S. Cathcart and Larry A. Samovar
(Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown Publishers, 1988).
Personal Report of Communication Apprehension (PRCA-24)*
Directions: This instrument is composed of 24 statements that concern your feelings about
10
communicating with other people. Please indicate in the space provided the degree to which each
statement applies to you by marking whether you: (1) Strongly Agree, (2) Agree, (3) are
Undecided, (4) Disagree, or (5) Strongly Disagree with each statement. There are no right or
wrong answers. Many of the statements are similar to other statements. Do not be concerned
about this. Work quickly; just record your first impression.
____ 1. I dislike participating in group discussions.
____ 2. Generally, I am comfortable while participating in a group discussion.
____ 3. I am tense and nervous while participating in group discussions.
____ 4. I like to get involved in group discussions.
____ 5. Engaging in a group discussion with new people makes me tense and nervous.
____ 6. I am calm and relaxed while participating in group discussions.
____ 7. Generally, I am nervous when I have to participate in a meeting.
____ 8. Usually, I am calm and relaxed while participating in meetings.
____ 9. I am very calm and relaxed when I am called upon to express an opinion at a
meeting.
____ 10. I am afraid to express myself at meetings.
____ 11. Communicating at meetings usually makes me uncomfortable.
____ 12. I am very relaxed when answering questions at a meeting.
____ 13. While participating in a conversation with a new acquaintance, I feel very
nervous.
____ 14. I have no fear of speaking up in conversations.
____ 15. Ordinarily, I am very tense and nervous in conversations.
____ 16. Ordinarily, I am very calm and relaxed in conversations.
____ 17. While conversing with a new acquaintance, I feel very relaxed.
____ 18. I’m afraid to speak up in conversations.
____ 19. I have no fear of giving a speech.
____ 20. Certain parts of my body feel very tense and rigid while giving a speech.
____ 21. I feel relaxed while giving a speech.
____ 22. My thoughts become confused and jumbled when I am giving a speech.
____ 23. I face the prospect of giving a speech with confidence.
____ 24. While giving a speech I get so nervous, I forget facts I really know.
Scoring:
Group = 18 - (1) + (2) - (3) + (4) - (5) + (6)
Meeting = 18 - (7) + (8) + (9) - (10) - (11) + (12)
Interpersonal = 18 - (13) + (14) - (15) + (16) + (17) - (18)
Public = 18 + (19) - (20) + (21) - (22) + (23) - (24)
Overall CA = Group + Meeting + Dyadic + Public
