1
Chapter 5
Becoming a Group
Summary
This chapter looks at how a group develops from an initial collection of individuals into a team,
with roles, norms, and a unique group climate. Students should be able to understand that their
roles in a group result from their behaviors, how others react to them, and how they respond.
Chapter Objectives
After reading this chapter, students should be able to accomplish the following objectives:
1. Explain how communication creates and maintains a group through the process of
structuration.
2. Describe the two major tasks groups must manage and how these create an equilibrium
problem for a group.
3. Define primary, secondary, and tertiary tension, and give examples of each.
4. Describe Tuckman’s Model of group development and Gersick’s two-phase model, and
explain how each describes the process many groups experience.
5. Describe the communicative dynamics of each stage of group socialization.
6. Describe each of the three main categories of roles in groups.
7. Differentiate between formal and behavioral roles, and describe how behavioral roles
emerge during group interaction.
8. Differentiate between rules and norms, and describe the four ways norms develop.
9. Explain what you would say and do if you wanted to change a group norm.
10. Describe each of the three main components that contribute to a group’s climate.
Sample Lecture Notes
Case Study: The Man of La Mancha Cast and Crew
• The heart of any group’s throughput process is the mutual influence that occurs when
group members communicate with each other.
• Groups whose individual members mesh into a productive team consistently figure out
how to manage their tensions to create and maintain constructive roles, norms, and a
supportive group climate.
o These groups must also develop and support a stable leadership structure.
2
I. How Communication Structures the Small Group
• Structuration is the idea that group communication creates, maintains, and continually
recreates a group’s norms and the way it operates.
• There are three important assumptions regarding structuration theory as it was developed
by Marshall Scott Poole, David Siebold, and Robert McPhee.
o Group members do not come to a group with a clean slate about how to behave.
o Although people pick up rules and standards for behavior from the general culture,
no law forces them to follow those rules.
o The group constantly creates and re-creates itself through communication; it is
always in a state of becoming.
II. Challenges in Group Development
A. A Group’s Major Functions
• The first issue, managing social tensions, involves the task and the relationship among
members.
o Task concerns revolved around the charge of the group, while socioemotional
concerns revolve around creating and maintaining harmonious relationships
among group members.
▪ Task and socioemotional concerns surface at predictable periods in a
group’s life cycle. Initially, socioemotional concerns are important as
members get to know one another, but at the same time, they are managing
their task.
o Groups never stop dealing with these two main functions.
B. Social Tensions in Groups
• Primary tension is defined as anxiety that arises early in a group’s formation as
members work out their relationships and roles.
• Secondary tension is defined as task-related tension that stems from differing opinions
about the substantive work of the group.
• Tertiary tension is defined as tension that stems from power and status struggles in a
group.
• Class Discussion: Use the “Apply Now” textbox on page 91 to role-play the tensions
groups face.
• Group members can move through the primary tension stage more quickly if they know
each other.
3
• Members can reduce both primary and secondary tension by sharing what they know
about the problem at hand.
• Secondary and tertiary tensions can be managed if group members demonstrate
tolerance for disagreement.
• Humor is also an effective way to handle group secondary and tertiary tension.
C. Phase Models of Group Development
Tuckman’s Model of Group Development
• Tuckman’s model of group development assumes that groups move through five
stages in order.
o Forming occurs when group members first meet. Members form initial
impressions of one another, start to get a handle on the group’s task, and focus
on getting along.
o Storming occurs when members start to tackle the group’s important issues and
strong feelings start to surface.
o In the norming phase, the group has worked through its initial conflicts. They
learn to appreciate the skills and abilities of their fellow group members and
begin to feel that they are part of a group.
o During the performing phase, group members are able to work smoothly and
effectively. However, not all groups reach this phase. For groups that do reach
this stage, members become interdependent, responsibilities shift appropriately,
and group identification is high.
o The adjourning phase is where the group completes its task and the group
members prepare the group to disband.
Gersick’s Two-Phase Model
• Gersick’s two-phase model explains the patterns, which are often non-linear, that
groups exhibit as they move through their phases (e.g., back and forth between stasis
change).
o Regardless of how long a group has to complete its task major, changes will
occur at the midpoint in the group’s life.
o Prior to the midpoint, the groups identify the charge and how they would
approach the task.
o At the halfway point, the groups realize that their time is beginning to run out.
Members then break from their routine work to assess their progress toward the
group’s task.
▪ Successful teams made adjustments in their work procedures, timelines,
4
and so forth.
▪ Unsuccessful teams made no adjustments.
III. Group Socialization of Members
• Group socialization is defined as the process by which new and/or established members
learn to fit together through communication.
• The adapting and adjusting that happens when new members enter an established group
occurs through communication among members.
• Effective socialization requires a balance between individual members and group goals.
• Socialization is an ongoing process and is not only about the new member but is also about
the group.
A. Stages of Group Socialization
• The antecedent stage is the stage during which members bring previous group
experiences, attitudes, beliefs, motives, and communication traits to the process.
• The anticipatory stage is the stage that describes individual and group initial
expectations of each other.
• The encounter stage is the stage in which members’ expectations meet with reality as
members adjust and fit with each other.
• The assimilation stage is the stage in which group members show full integration.
• The exit stage is the stage in which individuals leave a group or the group disbands.
IV. Group Roles
• A role is defined as the part a member plays in a group.
• It emerges as a function of one’s personality, one’s behavior, one’s expectations, the
expectations of other members, and any formal titles one has in the group.
A. Types of Roles
• Roles can be formal or informal.
• Formal roles are assigned, and informal roles (behavioral roles) are the parts people play
that reflect their personality traits, habits, and behaviors in the group.
B. Role Functions in a Small Group
Task Roles
5
• Task roles are roles that encompass behaviors that contribute directly to the
accomplishment of a group’s task.
o Initiating and orienting: This includes proposing goals, activities, or plans of
action and also defining the group’s position in relation to the goal.
o Clarifying: This includes making ambiguous statements clearer or interpreting
issues.
o Summarizing: This includes reviewing what has been said previously and
reminding the group of items previously mentioned or discussed.
o Suggesting procedure: This includes suggesting a method or procedure to
follow.
Maintenance Roles
• Maintenance roles are the roles that encompass behaviors that help a group maintain
harmonious relationships and contribute to a cohesive interpersonal climate.
o Supporting: This includes expressing support for another group member’s idea
or belief, agreeing with another group member, and following another group
member’s lead.
o Harmonizing: This includes reducing tension by reconciling a disagreement,
suggesting a compromise or a new alternative acceptable to all, combining
proposals into a compromise alternative, and calming an angry member.
o Relieving tension: This includes joking and otherwise relieving tension,
making strangers feel at ease, reducing status differences, and encouraging
informality.
o Showing solidarity: This includes indicating positive feelings toward one
another, reinforcing a sense of group unity, and promoting teamwork.
Individual Roles
• Individual roles consist of self-centered behaviors.
o Withdrawing: This includes not providing a response to others, avoiding
important differences, refusing to cope with conflicts, and refusing to take a
stand.
o Blocking: This occurs when a group member prevents progress toward group
goals by constantly raising objections or repeatedly bringing up the same topic
or issue after the group has considered it and rejected it.
o Playing: This includes refusing to help the group with the task; excessive
joking, dramatizing, and horsing around; and making fun of others who are
serious about the work.
o Acting helpless: This includes trying to elicit sympathy by constantly needing
6
help to complete tasks, showing inability for an independent thought or action,
and forcing others to complete or redo work that has been turned in.
C. The Emergence of Roles in a Group
• Through communication with each other, members gradually structure their unique
contributions and roles.
• Groups bring out different combinations of skills and personality characteristics.
V. Rules and Norms
• Rules are defined as the formal, explicit standards of behavior and procedures by which a
group operates.
• Norms are defined as the informal, implicit standards of behavior and procedures by which
members operate.
A. Development of Group Norms
• Behaviors that occur early in the group’s history often establish norms through primacy.
• Sometimes, norms are established by explicit statements that a leader or another
member makes.
• Some norms are established through critical events that occur in a group.
• Many group norms are taken from the general culture in which the group members live.
B. Enforcement of Group Norms
• The most obvious indicator of a norm is a behavior that is punished by peer pressure.
• Deviants are defined as the members who consistently violate group norms.
• Groups will try to pressure the deviant to conform.
• Deviants can also be helpful to a group if they cause the other members to examine
information and ideas more carefully.
• Class Discussion: Use the “Ethical Dilemma” textbox on pages 104–105 to discuss the
importance of deviants.
C. Changing a Group Norm
• Changing a norm is not always easy.
• One way to change a norm is to bring the group’s attention to the norm and the negative
effect it has on the group.
• One must allow the group to come up with ideas on how to change the norm rather than
7
imposing one’s own ideas.
VI. Development of a Group’s Climate
• Group climate is defined as the atmosphere or environment within a group.
• There are many dimensions involved in creating the group’s climate.
A. Trust
• Trust is defined as the general belief that members can rely on each other.
o A hidden agenda is an unstated private goal that a member wants to achieve
through a group.
o Trust evolves over the life span of the group.
o Components of the task and interpersonal trust emerge at different times.
B. Cohesiveness
• Cohesiveness is defined as the bonds of attachment that members have for each other.
o There are two types of cohesiveness: task and social. In highly task cohesive
groups, members are committed to project completion. In contrast, highly socially
cohesive groups like to spend time with one another.
o Highly cohesive groups must guard against “groupthink” or the tendency not to
examine critically all aspects of a decision or a problem.
C. Supportiveness
• In a supportive climate, members encourage each other, care about each other, and treat
each other with respect.
• In a defensive climate, members try to control, manipulate, and criticize each other.
VII. Ethical Behavior during Group Formation
• Group members should communicate in ways that help establish a supportive climate.
• Communication that degrades other members must not be tolerated.
• Freedom of expression, diversity of perspective, and tolerance of disagreement must be
encouraged.
• Group members must be willing to express their genuine personal convictions, even if this
requires courage to disagree with other members.
Learning Activities
9
school and work pressures. As a result, your whole project is on the verge of falling
apart.
d. Your group is slowing down because the task is complicated and no one member
seems to know how to handle it. Because of this, the members become frustrated and
discouraged and want to quit the group.
Media Learning Activities
1. Have students view the movie The Breakfast Club. This movie demonstrates how a group
develops from a collection of individuals, several of whom are antagonistic to each other,
into a cohesive unit. It is worthwhile to show this movie in class because it illustrates the
concepts in this chapter. The discussion of the movie can focus on the following questions:
a. How would you describe each member’s role in the club? What specific behaviors
lead you to name the role that way?
b. How would you isolate each phase of socialization?
c. What was the relationship like between the members of the group at the beginning of
the movie? Why do you think that was the case? How did each relationship change
as the movie progressed? Was there a turning point for change in any of these
relationships?
d. How did the role of the deviant change? Why?
e. Describe the emergence of each kind of tension. Were these phases managed
effectively?
f. What is the group’s climate at the beginning of the movie? At the end? Justify your
2. As an alternative to the previous activity, the movie The Commitments may be used,
especially if you think The Breakfast Club has been used in previous communication
3. Use a relatively short part, such as Part 1 (Leadership) or Part 2 (Conflict), of the video
Communicating Effectively in Small Groups to establish the “target group.” Ask the
students to prepare an observation chart using the Task, Maintenance, and Individual group
designations from Chapter 5. As they observe the video, have the students record the
category under which each member’s remarks falls. Then, on the basis of the percentages
determined for each member, have the students discuss the role characteristics of each
member. Then, have them discuss if any roles are overutilized or underutilized and the
10
impact this has on the group problem-solving process (see Table 5.5 for illustration). The
video for this activity is available from McGraw Hill Online
http://highered.mheducation.com/sites/0073523860/student_view0/videos__communicatin
g_effectively_in_small_groups.html.
Media Resources
1. The Breakfast Club (1985; 92 minutes)
This film shows how five high school students that are very different from each other
become a cohesive group during a Saturday morning detention period. See Part 2 of this
2. The Commitments (1991; 118 minutes)
This film shows how a diverse group of Dubliners form a rock-and-roll band and
eventually break up. See Part 2 of this manual for specific assignments.
3. Lord of the Flies (1990; 90 minutes)
This film is based on William Golding’s classic novel. It shows a group of boys stranded
on an island and how group/subgroup formation occurs. See Part 2 of this manual for
specific assignments.
4. Group Productivity (1984; 21 minutes; CRM Films)
This video dramatizes a three-stage developmental process (goals and procedures, power
distribution, and team production and feedback) with two issues running concurrently in
each: work and relationships.
5. Your Place in the Team (25 minutes; CRM Films)
This video compares the team performance of three different companies and discusses how
to implement a team-oriented culture.
6. Team Building: What Makes a Good Team Player (2nd ed.) (1995; 20 minutes; CRM
Films)
This video supports the value of diverse team player styles and how to build on stylistic
diversity.
7. Defensive/Supportive Communication (1987; 28 minutes)
Although this does not use the Gibb designations of defensive and supportive
communication, the underlying concept is that blaming and criticizing behaviors can harm
human relationships, while empathizing with people can build relationships.
11
Social Tensions in Groups
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
12
Managing Tensions
1. Reduce primary tension with ice breakers.
2. Reduce primary/secondary by sharing knowledge.
3. Reduce secondary/tertiary by demonstrating tolerance for disagreement.
4. Reduce secondary/tertiary with appropriate humor.
Source: Katherine Adams and Gloria J. Galanes, Communicating in Groups: Applications and Skills, 9th ed.
Copyright 1991, 1994, 1997, 2000, 2003, 2006, 2009, 2012, 2014 by McGraw Hill, Boston, MA. All Rights
Reserved.
13
Rules and Norms
Formal Rules Norms
Written, as in bylaws Unwritten, often
or a constitution unspoken
Enforced by legitimate Enforced by peer
authority, often by pressure
supervisory leader
Source: Katherine Adams and Gloria J. Galanes, Communicating in Groups: Applications and Skills, 9th ed.
14
Stages of Group Socialization
Antecedent Stage
Anticipatory Stage
Encounter Stage
Assimilation Stage
Exit Stage
15
Types of Role Functions in Small Groups
Task-Related: This role contributes directly to accomplishing the group’s task. Examples
for this role are as follows:
Initiating
Clarifying
Summarizing
Suggesting Procedure
Maintenance: This role helps the group maintain harmonious working relationships.
Examples for this role are as follows:
Supporting
Harmonizing
Relieving Tension
Showing Solidarity
Individual: This role puts concerns for the self above the concerns for the group. Examples
for this role are as follows:
Withdrawing
Blocking
Playing
Acting Helpless
Source: Katherine Adams and Gloria J. Galanes, Communicating in Groups: Applications and Skills, 9th ed.
16
Development of Group Norms
1. Behaviors that occur early—primacy
2. Explicit statements
3. Critical events
4. General culture
17
Defensive and Supportive Behaviors
Defensive Supportive
Evaluation Description
Control Problem orientation
Strategy Spontaneity
Neutrality Empathy
Superiority Equality
Certainty Provisionalism
Source: Katherine Adams and Gloria J. Galanes, Communicating in Groups: Applications and Skills, 9th ed.