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Chapter 10
Applying Leadership Principles
Summary
This chapter is designed to introduce students to the theoretical approaches to studying
leadership. In this chapter, students are encouraged to practice a variety of leadership behaviors
and observe the consequences these behaviors have on groups. This chapter highlights important
leadership principles and provides suggestions for applying them.
Chapter Objectives
After reading this chapter, students should be able to accomplish the following objectives:
1. Distinguish between leadership and a leader; differentiate a designated from an emergent
leader.
2. Describe the seven sources of a leader’s power, and give an example of each.
3. List and discuss the myths of leadership.
4. Discuss different approaches to understanding leadership.
5. Describe the administrative duties leaders are expected to perform, and explain how
leaders can perform these effectively.
6. List and explain six factors involved in leading group discussions.
7. Explain how establishing a climate of trust, developing teamwork, and promoting
cooperation can help develop the group.
8. Describe distributed leadership and discuss what it means to encourage it.
9. List and explain the ethical guidelines for group leaders.
Sample Lecture Notes
Case Study: The College Service Club
I. Leadership and Leaders
A. What is Leadership?
• Leadership is the use of communication to modify attitudes and behaviors of members
to meet group goals and needs.
• Communication is the central defining activity of leading and implies three things.
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o Leadership is accomplished through communication.
o Leadership consists of those behaviors that help the group achieved shared goals.
o The term modifies in the definition suggests that group leaders must be adaptable
to the changing conditions of a group.
B. Sources of Power and Influence
• Influence is the use of interpersonal power to modify the actions and attitudes of
members.
• Legitimate power is influence based on a member’s title or position in the group.
• Reward power is influence derived from someone’s ability to give members what they
want and need.
• Punishment power is influence derived from someone’s ability to take away what
members want and value.
• Coercion is using threats or force to make a member comply.
• Expert power is interpersonal influence that stems from someone’s perceived
knowledge or skill.
• Referent power is influence due to a person’s ability to be liked and admired.
• Information power is influence based on a person’s ability to control information.
• Ecological power is influence derived from a person’s ability to manipulate the logistics
of the task as well as the physical environment of a group.
C. What is a Leader?
• A leader is any person in a group who uses interpersonal influence to help the group
achieve its goals.
o All individuals in a group can (and should) supply some of the needed leadership
services to the group.
o A leader does not need to hold a particular title or office.
o Communication is a process through which a person actually leads others.
Designated Leader
• A designated leader is an appointed or elected leader whose title (chair, president)
identifies him or her as leader.
• They are either elected by the group or can be appointed by someone else such as a
manager or teacher.
Emergent Leader
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• An emergent leader is a person who starts out with the same status as other
members but gradually emerges as an informal leader in the eyes of the other
members.
• Studies have found that communication relevant to the group’s task is the one
factor that significantly predicts leadership emergence.
• Other behaviors or characteristics related to leadership emergence have been
found: effective listening, self-monitoring, being extraverted and sociable, and
intelligence.
• Although a prevailing assumption has been that males usually emerge as leaders,
biological sex now seems irrelevant, although psychological gender is not.
o Task-oriented women emerge as group leaders as often as task-oriented
men.
o In mixed-gender groups, regardless of sex, masculine and androgynous
members emerged as leaders more often than feminine and undifferentiated
members.
• Groups choose leaders based on performance.
• The process of leadership emergence speaks to the effectiveness of designated
leaders as well.
o Emergent leaders influence primarily through referent, expert, reward,
informational, and ecological power.
o A person who emerges as a leader in one group may not emerge as a leader
in another group.
II. Myths about Leadership
• Leadership is a personality trait that individuals possess in varying degrees.
o There is no trait that differentiates leaders from members.
o Not all leadership situations call for the same trait.
o Leadership consists of behaving in ways that can be learned.
• There is an ideal leadership style, regardless of the situation.
o Several studies indicated that leaders perform both task-oriented and relationship-
oriented behaviors.
o The three most common styles are: autocratic (authoritarian), democratic
(participatory), and laissez-faire (noninvolved).
▪ Autocratic leaders decide the group’s agenda, select procedures the group will
follow, and decide who will speak when.
▪ Highly authoritarian leaders can stifle group members who are expert, creative,
and enthusiastic, but their groups can be very productive.
▪ Democratic leaders want all the group members to participate in decision
making.
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o Members of groups with democratic leaders tend to be more satisfied and participate
more actively in meetings.
o These members also tend to demonstrate more commitment to the group’s decisions
and are more innovative.
o Laissez-faire “leaders,” who consider themselves to be no different from the other
members, are hands-off.
o Laissez-faire-led groups tend to waste time due to the lack of structure provided by
other leader types.
o Only groups of highly motivated experts tend to be productive and satisfied with
laissez-faire leaders.
o Transactional leadership involves a leader’s willingness to trade or exchange one
resource for another.
o Transformative leadership involves a leader’s ability to inspire followers to act
toward a greater good beyond their own self-interests.
o Charismatic leadership is focused on the leader and his or her extraordinary qualities
that move followers to act.
o The styles approach oversimplifies the complexities of groups as open systems, and
it also assumes a particular group will have the same needs—these are not helpful to
understanding how leadership works in a group.
• Leaders get other people to do the work for them.
• Class Discussion: Use the Table 10.2 on page 258 to help students think about styles of
leadership in their current groups.
III. Figuring Out the Dynamics of Leadership
A. The Functional Concept of Group Leadership
• The functional concept is the idea that groups need to have certain functions performed,
and all group members can and should perform needed functions.
• This approach requires leaders to diagnose what functions are needed and to supply
them.
• This approach also assumes that all members can learn a variety of behaviors and can
function as leaders in certain circumstances.
B. The Contingency Concept of Group Leadership
• The contingency concept is the idea that the features of a situation determine the
appropriate leadership behavior.
• Leaders should consider several factors before deciding on the specific leadership
services appropriate for the group.
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o Type of task
o How well the members work together
o How well the members work with the leader
• Hersey and Blanchard’s model of situational leadership will help leaders to recognize
which situation calls for which leadership style.
o Use Figure 10.1 on page 262 to apply the concept of contingency leadership.
C. The Distributed Concept of Group Leadership
• Distributed leadership is the idea that each group member can and should provide
leadership services to a group.
• Leadership activity by all members has been found to be more related to productivity
than to activity of the designated leader alone.
• Tensions arise; two such tensions are control from the leader and control from the
group, as well as the tensions between the demand of task work and nontask work.
IV. What Good Leaders Do
• Good leaders establish the group’s goal and make sure the group starts in the right
direction.
• Good leaders mold the group members into a team with a collaborative climate for
working together.
• Good leaders never lose sight of the group’s task and its progress toward the completion of
that task.
• Consistent with the leadership approaches discussed earlier, good leaders develop their
members’ talents by encouraging them to assume leadership responsibilities for the group.
• Good group leaders do not take their leadership for granted.
• The following are four areas of leadership competence in virtual groups (Table 10.4):
o Leadership is key to virtual group success.
o Virtual group leaders have to carefully manage meetings.
o Virtual group leaders do not lose sight of the social dimension of their group.
o Virtual group leaders use multiple technologies in their group work.
A. Duties Group Members Expect Leaders to Do
• Group members expect that their leaders will be competent and committed and will
work for the good of the group.
• In particular, most group members in the United States assume that their designated
leaders will provide services in three major categories, described briefly in Table 10.5:
performing administrative duties, leading group discussions, and developing the group.
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B. Performing Administrative Duties
• Planning for meetings
o Define the purpose of the meeting and communicate it clearly to the members.
o Make sure members know the place, starting time, and closing time for the
meeting.
o If special resource people are needed at the meeting, advise and prepare them.
o Make all necessary physical and technological arrangements.
• Following up on meetings
o Keep track of member assignments.
• Serve as liaison with other groups
o Evaluate the worth of group meetings.
• Managing the group’s written communication
o Send a meeting notice and agenda to each member before each meeting.
▪ Agenda is the list of items to be discussed at a meeting.
o Keep personal notes to keep track of what is going on.
o Keep minutes of each meeting so there will be a record of what was done.
▪ Minutes includes notes of what occurred at a meeting.
o Keep in a permanent file copies (hard copy or electronic) of any reports,
resolutions, or recommendations made by a group.
C. Leading Group Discussions
• Initiating discussions
o Help reduce primary tensions, especially with new groups.
o Briefly review the purpose of the meeting, the specific outcomes desired, and the
area of freedom of the group.
o Give out or post electronically informational and organizational handouts.
o See that special roles are established as needed.
o Suggest procedures to follow.
o Ask a clear question to help members focus on the first substantive issue on the
agenda.
• Structuring discussions
o Keep the group goal-oriented; watch for digressions and topic changes.
o Display the discussion or problem-solving procedure electronically or in a hard
copy for all the members to see.
o Summarize each major step or decision.
o Structure the group’s time.
o Bring the discussion to a definite close.
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• Equalizing opportunity to participate
o Address your comments to the group rather than to individuals.
o Control dominating or long-winded speakers.
o Encourage less-talkative members to participate.
o Avoid commenting after each member’s remark.
o Bounce questions of interpretation back to the group.
o Remain neutral during arguments.
• Stimulating creative thinking
o Suggest discussion techniques that are designed to tap a group’s creativity.
o When the flow of ideas stops, encourage the group to search for a few more
alternatives.
o Discuss the components of a problem one at a time.
o Watch for suggestions that open up new areas of thinking and then pose a general
question about them.
o Encourage an alternative perspective or switch senses.
• Stimulating critical thinking
o Encourage the evaluation of information and reasoning.
o See that all group members understand and accept the standards, criteria, or
assumptions used in making group judgments.
o See that all proposed solutions are tested thoroughly before they are accepted as
final group decisions.
o Establish a devil’s advocate individual or competing subgroups to poke holes in
potential solutions.
o Use Table 10.7 on pages 272–273 to apply the concept of getting the group to
engage in creative and critical thinking.
• Leading virtual group discussions (Table 10.8)
o If instant messaging (IM) is used, how will it be used during the meeting? (IM is
good for short messages but content cannot be archived.)
o If chats will occur, how will they be used? (Chat content can be archived.)
Support equitable participation.
o Keep track of who speaks.
o Notice if a member has dropped out of the conversation.
o Be careful not to jump in too quickly.
o Be patient listening to others, the lag time between messages can be delayed.
o Be prompt in checking for the meaning of messages. Nonverbal behavior, like
silence, can be read negatively during computer-mediated communication.
D. Developing the Group
• Establishing a climate of trust
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o Establish norms that build trust.
o Function as a coordinator rather than a dictator.
o Encourage members to get to know each other.
• Developing teamwork and promoting cooperation
o Speak of us and we, rather than I and you.
o Develop a name or another symbol of group identification.
o Watch for evidence of hidden agenda items that conflict with group goals.
o Use appropriate conflict management approaches and procedures.
o Share rewards with the group.
o Lighten up; share a laugh or joke with the group.
• Helping virtual groups develop
o When possible, have face-to-face contact with members.
o Nurture online relationships.
o Model principled behavior.
V. Encouraging Distributed Leadership
• Class Discussion: Use points on page 278–280 to begin the discussion of encouraging
distributed leadership.
• Be perceptive; analyze the needs of the group.
• Adapt behavior to fit the needs of the group; be a completer.
• Focus primarily on task needs rather than social relationships.
• Balance active participation with good listening.
• Express thoughts clearly and concisely.
• Be knowledgeable about group processes and group techniques.
• Be willing to plan, improvise, and adapt.
VI. Ethical Guidelines for Group Leaders
• Do not lie or intentionally send deceptive or harmful messages.
• Place concern for the group and for others ahead of personal gain.
• Be respectful of and sensitive to the other members.
• Stand behind the other members when they carry out policies and actions approved by the
leader and the group.
• Treat members with equal respect, regardless of sex, ethnicity, or social background.
• Establish clear policies that all group members are expected to follow.
• Follow the group rules, just as others are expected to do.
Learning Activities
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of a designated discussion leader. Divide the class into three approximately
equal-sized groups, and assign one leader to each group. Explain that each group will
get to discuss all three problems (10 minutes is usually sufficient). Then, the leader
will switch groups, taking the case problem to the next group.
c. Each leader hands copies of the case problem to the first group and conducts the
discussion as instructed. When the time for the first discussion has elapsed, stop the
discussion and rotate leaders. Thus, each group has a different leader and problem.
Do this again for the third discussion.
d. Ask the three leaders to step out of the room. Have the class vote for rank 1, 2, and 3
for each leader according to how much they would like each person to lead another
discussion. Bring the leaders back into the room and let them see the tallies on the
board.
e. Conduct a class discussion about what the students learned from the exercise.
Generate a to do and not to do list of how to behave as a discussion leader.
4. First, divide students into small groups. Ask the groups to discuss the idea that different
leadership situations require different types of leaders. Second, ask the students to develop
a list of contingencies that determine what leadership style is appropriate and how that
contingency is likely to affect the style. Third, use the list of contingencies to determine
what the most appropriate style is for the following situations:
a. A group of college students studying together for a final exam
b. A heart-transplant team
c. A task force of neighbors trying to rid the neighborhood of crack dealers
d. A group of student senators planning the senate agenda for the following month
e. A self-managed work group of employees assembling an automobile
f. A group of four grown children planning their parents’ 50th wedding anniversary
party
5. Ask students to attend an open meeting of a governmental body, campus organization, task
force, board of regents, or other on-going group and observe the style of leadership. Have
them share in class what they observed and whether they think the leadership is appropriate
for the needs of the group. What would they recommend to improve the leadership?
6. Ask students to take the Sargent and Miller Leadership Scale that follows and discuss their
scores in small groups. Students should give themselves one point for each answer that
agrees with those in the following key:
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A maximum score of 10 means that the respondent is very democratic. A minimum score
of 0 means the respondent is very autocratic.
Sargent and Miller Leadership Scale
We are interested in the things that are important to you when you are leading a group
discussion. Several pairs of statements are listed below. Read each pair of statements, and
place a mark in the one you believe to be more important. When you evaluate the
statement, observe the following ground rules:
1. Place your check marks clearly and carefully.
2. Do not omit any of the items.
3. Never check both of the items.
4. Do not look back and forth through the items; make each item a separate and
independent judgment.
5. Your first impression, the immediate feelings about the statements, is what we want.
____ 1. a. To give everyone a chance to express his or her opinion
____ b. To know what the group and its members are doing
____ 2. a. To assign members to tasks so more can be accomplished
____ b. To let the members reach a decision all by themselves
____ 3. a. To know what the group and its members are doing
____ b. To help the members see how the discussion is related to the purposes
of the group
____ 4. a. To assist the group in getting along well together
____ b. To help the group to what you think is their best answer
____ 5. a. To get the job done
____ b. To let the members reach a decision all by themselves
____ 6. a. To know what the group and its members are doing
____ b. To let the members reach a decision all by themselves
____ 7. a. To get the job done
____ b. To assist the group in getting along well together
____ 8. a. To help the members see how the discussion is related to the purposes
of the group
____ b. To assign members to tasks so more can be accomplished
____ 9. a. To ask questions that will cause members to do more thinking
____ b. To get the job done
____ 10. a. To let the members reach a decision all by themselves
____ b. To give new information when you feel the members are ready for it
F. Sargent and G. Miller, “Some Differences in Certain Communication Behaviors of Autocratic and Democratic
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Group Leaders,” Journal of Communication 21 (1971), pp. 233-52.
Media Learning Activities
1. Have the class view the leadership segment (Part 1) of the video Communicating
Effectively in Small Groups. Ask the students to provide a written case study analyzing the
leadership in this small group. (When we give this assignment, we ask the students to use
the information from both this and the previous chapter as the basis for their analysis.)
Each student in the video provides leadership services to the group, and the leader behaves
in a democratic way, structuring the meeting but not dominating it. The leader and
members operate as a system—the leader could not be the type of democratic leader he or
she is without having mature and motivated members. The video demonstrates the systems
aspect of leadership, leader as a “completer,” the functions approach, distributed
leadership, and other concepts described in Chapter 10. We often show the video and give
the students one week to submit a five to seven page written analysis of the group. It gives
us a chance to see to what extent students can identify and apply concepts they have
learned. (See Part 2 of this video available at McGraw Hill online:
http://highered.mheducation.com/sites/0073523860/student_view0/videos__communicatin
g_effectively_in_small_groups.html).
Alternatively, you may want the class to view Part 1 (Leadership) of the video
Communicating Effectively in Small Groups and use this as a discussion guide, either for
the entire class or for small groups.
Media Resources
1. Communicating Effectively in Small Groups, Part 1, Leadership (Available at McGraw Hill
online)
http://highered.mheducation.com/sites/0073523860/student_view0/videos__communicatin
g_effectively_in_small_groups.html
2. A wide variety of leadership exercises and activities may be found in handbooks
distributed by University Associates Inc., University Associates Inc. PO Box 37255
Tucson, Arizona 85740-7255, 877-247-6362. These sourcebooks are valuable in helping to
develop in-class activities that can be tailored for a multitude of purposes.
3. Parliamentary Procedure Guidelines
This video discusses the history, development, purposes, and structure of parliamentary
procedure. It includes an explanation of the most common procedures, such as making a
motion or amendment, tabling, and referring to a committee.
4. Leadership: What’s Trust Got to Do With It? (DVD; CRM Films
http://www.crmlearning.com/Leadership-Whats-Trust-Got-to-Do-With-It-2nd-Edition-
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P54548.aspx)
5. Meetings, Bloody Meetings (1976, film, 31 minutes)
Presented by the Monty Python crew, this movie presents five steps for conducting
meetings effectively. It is done with wonderful humor.
6. Meeting in Progress (film, 43 minutes; Roundtable Films, 113 N. San Vincente Boulevard,
Beverly Hills, CA 90211)
This film illustrates techniques for leading discussions effectively, especially at critical
junctures in meetings. http://www.worldcat.org/title/meeting-in-progress/oclc/4914723
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Types of Power
Legitimate: Influence based on a member’s title or position in the group
Expert: Interpersonal influence that stems from someone’s perceived valuable knowledge or
skill
Referent: Influence due to a person’s ability to be liked and admired
Reward: Influence derived from someone’s ability to give members what they want and value
Punishment: Influence derived from someone’s ability to take away what members want and
value
Information: Influence based on a person’s ability to control information
Ecological: Influence derived from a person’s ability to manipulate the logistics of the task as
well as the physical environment of a group
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Myths about Leadership
1. Leadership is a personality trait that individuals have in varying degrees.
2. There is only one ideal leadership style appropriate for all situations.
3. Leaders get other people to do the work for them.
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Styles of Leadership
Autocratic Leadership:
Decisions made solely by the leader
Democratic Leadership:
Decisions made by leaders in consultation with group
Laissez-Faire Leadership:
Passive—“hands–off” attitude
Transactional Leadership:
Exchange of resources between leader and followers
Transformational Leadership:
Leader inspires followers to act toward greater good
Charismatic Leadership:
Leader power is connected to perceived extraordinary qualities
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Duties of a Group Leader
Administrative Duties
1. Planning for meetings
2. Following up on meetings
Manage the Group’s Communication
Leading Discussions
1. Initiating
2. Structuring
3. Equalizing opportunity to participate
4. Stimulating creative thinking
5. Stimulating critical thinking
Developing the Group as a Team
1. Establishing a climate of trust
2. Developing teamwork and promoting cooperation
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Encouraging Distributed Leadership
1. Be perceptive; analyze the needs of the group.
2. Adapt your behavior to fit the needs of the group.
3. Focus primarily on task needs rather than relationships.
4. Balance your active participation with good listening.
5. Express yourself clearly and concisely.
6. Be knowledgeable about the group processes/techniques.
7. Be willing to plan, improvise, and adapt.
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Ethical Guidelines for Group Leaders
1. Do not lie or intentionally send deceptive messages.
2. Place your concern for the group ahead of your gain.
3. Be respectful of and sensitive to other members.
4. Stand behind the other members when they carry out policies approved by the group.
5. Treat members with equal respect, regardless of sex, ethnicity, or social background.
6. Establish clear policies that group members can follow.
7. Follow the rules of the group.