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CHAPTER 12
THE FRAGMENTATION OF THE EUROPEAN UNION: THE CROSSROADS REDUX
Overview
Peter Bergen’s statement at the beginning of the chapter says it all! Since the last edition of
the text, at least three crises—two connected to developments outside the EU and one endemic
to it—have contributed to increasingly skeptical and negative opinions about the European
Union. As in the past, the EU appears to be at a crossroads where its inability to resolve
critical problems is undermining its institutions and authority.
The first crisis we cover in some detail began in the United States in 2007 and contributed to
major debt problems in Europe—especially in the Mediterranean states—and raised many
questions about the stability of the euro. The second crisis is the flood of migrants and asylum
seekers who initially arrived in Greece and Italy and who were escaping wars in the Middle
East and terrible socio-economic conditions. Financial and migrant crises spurred the growth
The chapter begins with a brief history of the EU and traces some transformations in its major
institutions. Integration was relatively popular in the 1950s and 1960s, with some of the
founding fathers envisioning a “United State of Europe” with a federalist political system.
Key Terms
•
European Union
•
Brexit
•
Economic and Monetary Union (EMU)
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integration
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Grexit
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Single European Act (SEA)
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Treaty of Maastricht
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European Central Bank (ECB)
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Troika
Teaching Tips
• The European Union is usually a popular topic with students. Many of them have traveled
there with their families or high school groups, and many will choose to study abroad there.
The crisis issues covered in the chapter still receive a good deal of coverage in major
newspapers and journals. There are many YouTube videos available on issues discussed in
this chapter.
• Start by asking students what they know about the EU, including early EU history going
back to the late 1940s. Why was the European Economic Community (EEC) created? By
whom? For what purpose? Point out the 3 major crises and related issues that will be
covered in class.
• End a class session with a question or questions in the readings that you want students to
think about for the next class. Questions should be broad enough for them to answer in a
paragraph or two. (You may want to make this an assignment that is collected and counted
• Use the map and the chronology in the chapter as much as possible at first.
• In the past many academics focused on explaining why integration moved forward in fits
and starts based on its limited successes in cooperation that “spilled over” from one policy
area to another. Anti-communism during the Cold War also provided political and
economic motives that led officials to sign the Treaty of Rome in 1956. Integration slowed
in the 1960s but then picked up again in the 1970s. Globalization and the end of the Cold
War spiked enthusiasm for a landmark agreement in 1992 to pursue a monetary union.
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• Make sure to highlight the bold terms in the text and mention that they may be possible
multiple choice and essay questions on an exam (see below). Also mention to students
certain topics that would make good essay questions. Urge students to know the names of
national and EU officials who have played a major role in the integration process, including
Churchill, De Gaulle, Monnet, Hallstein, Delors, Schmitt, Mitterand, Thatcher, Draghi,
Merkel, and May. On an exam ask students to state the position of each official and their
significance in EU politics.
Sample Essay Questions
1. Encourage students to use some of the IPE tools identified in Chapter 1 to help describe
2. Assert that the EU has been going through a transformation that is fundamentally changing
3. Identify some issues causing conflicts between EU and national interests. How are these
conflicts hurting integration? Demonstrate that you have read the parts of the text related
4. Do you think that the EU might break up in the near? Give arguments for and against the
likelihood of breakup. How might the EU resolve some of its existing tensions?
Sample Multiple-Choice Questions
1) Who suggested after World War II that western Europe should forge a “United States” of
Europe?
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2) In which city did six countries sign the Treaty establishing the EEC?
d) the ECSC.
4) Which British Prime Minister put the damper on EU integration in the early 1980s by
emphasizing neoliberal economic policies?
a) Edward Heath
5) Which treaty formally established the “European Union,” the European Central Bank,
and the Economic and Monetary Union in 1992?
6) Most economic experts argue that the fundamental problem with the EMU is
a) lack of authority by the head of the ECB.
7) Which of the following institutions is not a member of the Troika?
a) The IMF
8) Which Troika policy generated massive protests and demonstrations in Greece and other
European countries because it imposed economic hardship on ordinary people?
d) Détente
9) Which candidate for prime minister of Greece promised not to agree to Troika conditions
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for a third Greek loan, but then did agree to those conditions once he was elected?
a) Yanis Varoufakis
10) Those who leave their nation in search of a better job are usually referred to as
d) refugees
11) In Europe, what does “The Jungle” refer to?
12) Which of the following was required of the UK before negotiations could begin with the
UK for terms related to its future relationship to the EU?
d) None of the above.
13) Which of the following statements is incorrect?
a) The European Council is composed of a single representative from each member
nation and is the main lawmaking body of the EU.
14) A top government minister in which country said that Greece should leave the EU?
d) Belgium
15) Balaam and Dillman conclude that which of the following states must assume more
hegemonic responsibilities if European states are to continue to cooperate to solve
common problems?
a) the UK
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Suggested Readings and Links
Euractiv. https://www.euractiv.com/.
EUobserver. https://euobserver.com/.
Marchetti, Raffaelle, ed. Debating Migration to Europe: Welfare vs. Identity. New York:
Routledge, 2018.
Nugent, Neil. The Government and Politics of the European Union. 6th ed. Basingstoke:
Palgrave Macmillan, 2017.
Wæver, Ole. “A Post-Western Europe: Strange Identities in a Less Liberal World Order.”
Ethics & International Affairs 32:1 (Spring 2018): 75-88.
Zielonka, Jan. Counter-Revolution: Europe in Retreat. New York: Oxford University Press,
2018.
Audiovisual Resources
Agorá – From Democracy to the Market. Yorgos Avgeropoulos, dir. A Small Planet
Production, 2015. “AGORΑ … constitutes an impressive mosaic that demonstrates the
Greek crisis from 2010 to 2014. It traces its impact on Greek society through four dark
years: the rapid impoverishment suffered by Greek citizens, the rise of fascism as well as
the emergence of solidarity movements are scrutinized through long-time observation and
documentation by Greek documentary filmmaker Yorgos Avgeropoulos”
(http://www.agorathedoc.com/news).
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Exodus: The Journey Continues. James Bluemel, dir. A Keo Films Ltd. production for
WGBH/FRONTLINE and BBC, 2018. At
https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/film/exodus-the-journey-continues/. “The intimate
stories of refugees and migrants, caught in Europe’s tightened borders. Amid the ongoing
migration crisis, the film—a sequel to the award-winning 2016 documentary, Exodus—
follows personal journeys over two years, as countries become less welcoming to those
seeking refuge” (FRONTLINE website).