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CHAPTER 07
Culture and Identity:
Situating the Individual
OVERVIEW
The relationship between one’s identity and culture is addressed in Chapter Seven. The authors
begin by defining the identity and providing examples of social identities. With the concept
well-established, the discussion shifts to the models of identity acquisition and development. The
chapter concludes with an exploration of the dark side of identity: stereotyping, prejudice,
racism, and ethnocentrism.
OUTLINE
I. The role of identity
II. Defining identity
A. Abstract
B. Complex
C. Dynamic
D. Socially constructed
E. Turner’s Taxonomy of identity
1. Human
3. Personal
F. Hall’s categories of identity
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2. Relational
3. Communal
III. Examples of social identity
A. Racial identity
B. Ethnic identity
C. Gender identity
D. National identity
E. Regional identity
F. Organizational identity
G. Personal identity
H. Cyber and fantasy identity
IV. Acquiring and developing identities
A. Chimney’s three stage model
2. Ethnic identity search
1. Unexamined identity
3. Resistance and separatism
4. integration
C. Martin and Nakayama’s majority development model
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1. Unexamined identity
2. Acceptance
4. Redefinition
1. Become conscious of differences in general and potential for conflict
3. Begin to sense not part of the ‘norm.’
E. Ascribed identities
F. Avowed identities
V. Establishing and enacting cultural identity
VI. Identity in intercultural interactions
VII. Identity in a globalized society
VIII. The dark side of identity
IX. Stereotyping
A. Stereotypes defined
B. Stereotypes and intercultural communication
C. Avoiding stereotypes
X. Prejudice
A. Functions of prejudice
1. Ego defensive
3. Value-expressive
1. Ant locution
3. Discrimination
5. Extermination
C. Causes of prejudice
2. Maintaining social identity
1. Multicultural education
2. Cultural diversity training
XI. Racism
A. Racism defined
B. Expressions of racism
C. Avoiding racism
XII. Ethnocentrism
A. Characteristics of ethnocentrism
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2. Ethnocentrism is universal
1. Try to avoid dogmatism
2. Learn to be open to new views
XIII. Summary
ACTIVITIES
Activity 7-1: Complexity of identity
This activity is designed to highlight the interconnectivity of the various forms of identity
discussed in the text. Students will be asked to write a brief statement about how they view
themselves and what they see as their “identity.” Then, using the typology of identity as a
framework, ask students to go through their statement to determine how many of the following
were directly or indirectly referenced in their statements. Discuss why particular “identities”
were included and others were not.
Typology items:
• Racial identity – mongoloid, caucasoid, negroid.
• Ethnic identity – African American, Native American, etc.
• Gender identity – masculine and feminine roles.
• National identity – American, Canadian, Mexican, etc.
• Regional identity – Southern, Eastern, etc.
• Organizational identity – GM, GTE, Toyota, etc.
• Personal identity – biker, dancer, gamer, etc.
• Cyber or Fantasy identity – maiden, warrior, wizard, etc.
Possible discussion questions:
• Why were some aspects of identity included in student statements and others
neglected?
• If students ranked the various identities in terms of the perceived relevance to
their sense of “I,” would this explain the neglected identities?
• Are there any “identities” listed in the typology that students believe are not
relevant to their sense of identity?
• Are there any “identities” not included in the typology that students believe are
relevant to their sense of identity.
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Activity 7-2: Integrating identities
In this activity, students will role play using a random selection of “identities” in an effort to
display the variety and complexity of identity. If you are teaching a larger class, you may wish to
select a set of volunteers to participate in this activity. Using the typology of identities, create a
series of 4x6 index cards. On one side of each card, write a “type” of identity (e.g., racial, ethnic,
gender, national, regional, organizational, personal, cyber or fantasy). On the reverse side of each
card, write an example of that reflects the identity type (e.g., ethnic = African-American,
regional = rural). Separate cards into piles (be sure to create at least 3 or 4 cards for each identity
type) with the identity type face up. If you’re using volunteers, ask two students to select one
card from each of the piles. The cards each volunteer selected will become the “identity” that the
student will role play. Each volunteer will simulate a conversation and attempt to display his/her
newly acquired identity. The context of the conversation is simply two people meeting for the
first time. For the purposes of the activity, you could define the context further by describing it
as “two students meeting on the first day of class” or “two people who work at an organization
meeting for the first time,” etc. Of course, if you want an added component of uncertainty, you
can create 4x6 cards to reflect a variety of specific contexts in which individuals would meet for
the first time. The volunteers should use the “identities” to frame their statements as well as their
responses.
Possible discussion questions:
• Was the interaction realistic? Why or why not?
• Were the identities realistic? Why or why not?
• How would the interaction have changed with different identities?
• How would the interaction change under different scenarios (e.g., talking about
class and asking for notes, reprimanding a co-worker, etc.)?
Activity 7-3: Explaining identity
Using the same concept of randomly defining each of the aspects of identity covered in the text,
this activity does not require a role-playing exercise. Students select cards that provide an
example of each type of identity and use the combination to develop a short biography of the
person/identity that was been created from the cards. The biographies or a selection of them
could be read aloud and discussed in class.
Activity 7-4: Responding to racism
This activity gives students an opportunity to consider how they might respond to the racism of
others. Such situations oftentimes come about suddenly. Furthermore, they may be so offensive
that we are at a loss for words, or they can be so commonplace that we do not recognize them as
offensive or racist. For example, we may be at a party and a friend uses a racist slur to refer to
people of a certain ethnic group. One person laughs nervously, another looks away, and yet
another nods approvingly. But no one says anything. What do you do? Call the person racist?
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Walk away? Explain that it offended you? Discuss the harm done by racist comments? Ask
students to consider the following scenario and to imagine being in this same kind of situation.
Kevin and C.J. have been friends since elementary school. Even though C.J. has been attending
college out of state for the last year, the two have remained close friends. On some occasions,
however, both C.J. and Kevin have noticed some changes in the other. Kevin has noticed that
C.J. is a little more serious about life, and C.J. has noticed that Kevin has begun to refer to
members of other racial groups in very derogatory ways. After being around Kevin for three
days, C.J. has decided to discuss the problem.
C.J.: “What's with you, Kevin? Why do you call people names like that?”
Kevin: “Ah, it doesn't mean anything. It's just talk.”
C.J. “Yeah, but it is hard to ignore. It sounds real harsh to me.”
Kevin: “Come on, C.J., don't take things so seriously. I would never say those things to
anyone's face.”
C.J.: “I guess.” C.J. didn't want to start anything with his friend, and so he just
shrugged his shoulders and let the issue drop. He felt it wasn't worth getting into a
fight over, but he did not feel comfortable with Kevin’s explanation.
2. Have you ever been faced with a similar dilemma with a close friend,
acquaintance, or family member? What happened? How did you deal with the
situation?
3. Why are we oftentimes afraid to “start anything” with people who have offended
us or made us angry? What keeps us from “speaking up”? Is it easier to say
something to a friend or to someone you have just met? Why?
4. What is the harm of using racist terms if the person or group being referred to
doesn’t hear the comment?
5. Consider Kevin’s phrase, “It's just talk.” Can some of the things we say be labeled
just talk” and not really mean anything? Why or why not?
6. How might C.J. have talked with Kevin about his use of derogatory language
without causing a rift between them?
Activity 7-5: The stereotypes we learn
This activity asks students to identify stereotypes of other cultures and co-cultures and consider
how these stereotypes have hindered or could hinder intercultural interactions. Students will be
challenged to ask themselves difficult questions that may have surprising and possibly disturbing
answers. This activity is probably most suitable for classes where a supportive, trusting
environment has been maintained throughout the semester.
Ask students to identify one or two groups of people in the world (e.g., religious, ethnic, people
who come from certain states or countries, people of certain occupations). Students should
choose a group/s that they have never interacted with. The only information students should have
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about this group of people is from what they have read, heard, seen on television, and so forth.
Once students have selected a group/s, ask them to write down all of the characteristics that have
been associated with this group/s.
Collect the descriptions and for the next class, prepare a list of the students’ responses. These
responses can be written on the board or prepared as handouts. Use these descriptions to begin a
discussion of stereotypes and their influence on intercultural interactions.
Possible discussion questions following the exercise:
• Where do these descriptions come from? Media? Parents? School? Friends?
Observations? Interactions?
• Would you characterize these descriptions as cultural stereotypes? Why or why
not?
• Why do we form stereotypes? When do we use them? How do we use them? Are
they useful? Are they fair?
• If you have had many interactions with some of these groups, are your
descriptions still stereotypes?
• When are stereotypes harmful to human interaction? When are they helpful?
• How could some of these stereotypes prevent positive intercultural
communication with a member of one of these groups?
• What is the role of ethnocentrism in stereotyping?
• How do stereotypes lead to prejudice and hate? How can we prevent this from
occurring?
• Can you give examples when it was obvious that you were being stereotyped by
another individual? What did you do or wish you had done?
Activity 7-6: Reorder the world
This activity is designed to help students understand how perceptions can often times lead to
stereotyping. Perception involves selectively noticing and labeling certain and not other aspects
of the stimuli around us. Humans need some kind of organization and categorization of cultures
and co-cultures to make sense of the world. However, categorized differences should not have
negative connotations. Keep in mind that respect, understanding, and common ground are keys
to adapting to diverse cultures.
Divide students into small groups of five to seven. Ask them to discuss and devise a method of
classifying people into cultures. There is only one restriction: They may not use race, sex, age,
socioeconomic class, religion, disabilities, or sexual orientation as foundations for classifying
people. They should not use superficial classifications such as eye color, blood type, or height.
Have students discuss their classifications with the class. Ask students to come up with as many
possibilities as they can in 15 minutes.
Possible discussion questions following the exercise:
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• Is there cultural value in being able to categorize people?
• Was it easy to come up with new categories for people?
• Why was it so difficult?
• Did you find that people were more alike than you originally thought?
Activity 7-7: Image making*
This activity is designed to help students understand how language helps form perceptions and
stereotypes about women, men, racial groups, and gays through mass communication including
newspapers, radio, television, and the Internet.
Divide students into small groups of five to seven members. They will have 20 minutes to read
and discuss the language used by newspapers to represent women, men, racial groups, and gays.
Have them choose one person to represent their group and explain their finding to the class. They
should consider the following questions to get them started:
• Are female and male news figures described in parallel ways?
• How often are marital status and appearance mentioned in stories about
members of each sex?
• When is race noted in newspapers articles?
• Is race noted in the story when the person is not Caucasian? Does this
imply that Caucasian is the assumed standard?
• Are women’s and men’s athletic contests given equal coverage?
• Are female and male athletes described in parallel ways?
• How much of each story on women and on men is devoted to athletic
accomplishments, appearance, and personal details?
* Adapted from Department of Communication, Indiana University-Purdue University. Fort
Wayne (2001). COM 114 Handbook. Author.
SUPPLEMENTAL FILMS AND VIDEOS
Arab Americans (1993, 30 minutes)
This instructional video celebrates the cultural heritage of Arab Americans by examining the
traditions each group has brought to the U.S., when and why they immigrated, and how they
have preserved their identity in the process.
Beyond Hate (1991, 88 minutes)
Bill Moyers explores prejudice and hate by conducting interviews with the hated as well as the
ones who hate. The video includes appearances by former president Jimmy Carter, Myrlie Evers,
and Vaclav Havel. The goal of the video is to promote tolerance.
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Black Like Me (1964, 105 minutes)
This classic film stars James Whitmore as a white author in the 1950s who chemically treats his
skin so that he appears to be a black man and chronicles his experiences.
Cultural Diversity: At the Heart of Bull (1992, 28 minutes)
This instructional video explores cultural differences within an information systems corporation.
Featuring employees from France and the U.S., the participants candidly discuss how they
perceive themselves, one another, and the world around them.
In My Country: An International Perspective on Gender (1993, 90 minutes)
This three volume video set (30 minutes per volume) examines a number of cultural attitudes and
practices related to gender: the division of household labor, types of discipline for boys and girls,
marriage decisions, sexual orientation, the control of money, gendered violence, and care for the
elderly. The video features interviews with people from Zaire, El Salvador, England, Taiwan,
Sweden, Lebanon, Japan, India, China, the Fiji Islands, and Mexico.
Native Stereotyping (1994, 30 minutes)
This video examines stereotyping from the perspective of Aboriginals, providing examples of
how stereotypes are perpetuated in books, films, television, advertising, and other aspects of
popular culture. The impact that these stereotypes have on dominant culture attitudes and
aboriginals is discussed.
Prejudice – Answering Children’s Questions (1991, 75 minutes)
This video, hosted by Peter Jennings, involves a discussion by children about prejudice. Personal
experiences are poignantly delivered. Topics include prejudice against race, the disabled, and
TEST ITEMS: CHAPTER 07
Multiple-Choice
1. Identity is ____. (A) abstract; (B) unidimensional; (C) dynamic; (D) A and C; (E) A, B,
and C
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2. Identity has been defined as: (A) a person’s self-definition as a separate and distinct
individual, included behaviors, attitudes, and beliefs; (B) the concept of who we are;
(C) in-group and out-group communication; (D) A and B; (E) A, B, and C
3. Perceptions of self that set you apart from other people and life-forms are ____.
(A) human identities; (B) societal identities; (C) personal identities; (D) identities of
separation; (E) identities of conformation
4. Social identities can be based on all of the following except: (A) demographic categories;
(B) roles; (C) membership in formal and informal organization; (D) associations or
vocations; (E) A, B, C, and D
5. Ethnic identity is derived from a sense of shared: (A) biological ancestry; (B) physical
characteristics; (C) history and traditions; (D) A and B; (E) B and C
6. An example of regional identity would be a/n: (A) Italian; (B) Southerner; (C) American;
(D) Columbian; (E) German
7. Which of the following is not a type of identity discussed in the text? (A) organizational;
(B) personal; (c) neurobiological; (D) cyber; (E) fantasy
8. How is identity shaped online? (A) the username you choose; (B) the details you disclose
about yourself; (C) the images you share; (D) B and C; (E) A, B, and C
9. Phinney’s three stage model of identity acquisition includes: (A) unexamined ethnic
identity, ethnic identity search, ethnic achievement; (B) biological inheritance, ethnic
identification, ethnic presentation; (C) ethnic identification, ethnic clarification, ethnic
emancipation; (D) unexamined ethnic identity, examined ethnic identity, insulated ethnic
identity; (E) biological inheritance, unexamined ethnic identity, examined ethnic identity
10. Martin and Nakayama present this model of cultural identity development: (A) minority
development; (B) majority development; (C) biracial; (D) A and B; (E) A, B, and C
11. The process of creating and recreating cultural identity through communication is
referred to as ____. (A) conditioning; (B) embedding; (C) redacting; (D) enacting;
(E) morphing
12. What is the term used to describe ‘a cognitive structure containing the perceiver’s
knowledge, beliefs, and expectancies about some human social groups? (A) bigotry;
(B) stereotyping; (C) prejudice; (D) schematization; (E) embedding
13. Why are stereotypes pervasive? (A) human nature is evil; (B) natural selection; (C) the
world is simply too complex and dynamic to comprehend in detail; (D) lack of comingled
cultures; (E) C and D
14. Children learn stereotypes through ____. (A) peers; (B) family; (C) mass media; (D) A
and B; (E) A, B, and C
15. Which of the following is not a reason that stereotypes are problematic for intercultural
communication? (A) stereotypes provide a framework for understanding another culture;
(B) stereotypes act as a filter; (C) stereotypes are resistant to change; (D) A and B; (E) B
and C
16. The two most important aspects of flexible stereotyping are: (A) being open to new
information and evidence and being aware of your own zone of comfort; (B) identifying
similarities and being open to applying stereotypes to different groups; (C) seeking ways
to make new information fit preexisting attitudes and an objective orientation;
(D) objectivity and exclusivity; (E) adaptive intensity and flexhumility
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17. A rigid, irrational generalization about a category of people is also referred to as ____.
(A) stereotyping; (B) prejudice; (C) bigotry; (D) racism; (E) ethnocentrism
18. Prejudice serves all of the following functions except: (A) value expressive; (B) ego-
defensive; (C) knowledge; (D) ethnic centering; (E) utilitarian
19. When prejudicial attitudes provide some benefit to the person that holds them, what
functions do they serve? (A) ego-defensive; (B) reward; (C) utilitarian; (D) value-
expressive; (E) knowledge
20. Prejudicial attitudes like “I didn’t get the promotion because they needed to meet an
affirmative action quota” reflect what function of prejudice? (A) value-expressive;
(B) utilitarian; (C) ego-defensive; (D) knowledge; (E) reward
21. The strongest level of expressed prejudice is ____. (A) physical attacks; (B) avoidance;
(C) discrimination; (D) antilocution; (E) extermination
22. When a particular group of people are singled out to bear the blame for certain events or
circumstances, this type of prejudice is caused by: (A) scapegoating; (B) societal sources;
(C) maintaining social identity; (D) reinforcing cultural identity; (E) C and D
23. Which of the following is not true about racism? (A) racism is only a problem in the
U.S.; (B) racism is on the rise throughout the world; (C) racism is driven by culture and
economics; (D) racism is driven by psychology and history; (E) racism has been present
throughout history
24. The notion that one’s culture is superior to any other is known as: (A) egocentric;
(B) ethnocentrism; (C) supracentrism; (D) Hellenism; (E) transnationalism
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25. What are the levels of ethnocentrism? (A) low, moderate, high; (B) negative, positive,
extremely positive; (C) extremely negative, negative, positive; (D) negative, extremely
negative; (E) focused, diffused
26. Ethnocentrism: (A) Western countries are the most ethnocentric; (B) Middle Eastern
countries are the most ethnocentric; (C) Scandinavian countries are the most
ethnocentric; (D) Asian countries are the most ethnocentric; (E) is common regardless of
nationality or geographic location
True/False
1. Identity is important to the study of intercultural communication because it influences
expectations about your own and others’ social roles.
2. Societal identity is ‘one’s sense of belonging to a particular cultural or ethnic group.
3. Personal identity is what sets you apart from other out-group members and marks you as
special or unique.
4. According to Hall, the three levels of identity that each individual has are personal,
relational, and communal.
5. Racial and ethnic identity are the same thing.
6. One can have both a national and regional identity at the same time.
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7. If you work for General Motors and you think of yourself as a “GM man” or “GM
woman,” this reflects your organizational identity.
8. Cyber and fantasy identities don’t exist.
9. Identity development models are not necessarily universally applied to all groups.
10. It is through communication that we are able to express and make known our similarities
and dissimilarities to others.
11. Identity is normally not associated with commemorative events.
12. Stereotypes are an affliction only of the uneducated and unintelligent.
13. Stereotypes are learned, not innate.
14. Stereotypes are resistant to change and once formed, tend to be reinforced rather than
reduced through direct contact with the target group.
15. Flexible stereotyping is less problematic than inflexible stereotyping.
16. Prejudice amounts to a rational generalization about a category of people.
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17. Prejudice serves no function.
18. A great deal of prejudice is built into the major organizations and institutions of a society.
19. Racism is the belief in the inherent superiority of a particular race.
20. Ethnocentrism, stereotyping, prejudice, and racism are all linked to a “narrow lens.”
21. To function effectively, a society does not need to have any ethnic pride and loyalty to its
unique cultural traditions.
22. Regardless of culture, everyone is ethnocentric to some degree.
Short Answer/Essay
1. Explain and provide an example of each of the following types of identity: personal,
relational, and communal.
2. Compare and contrast ethnic and racial identity.
3. Explain the difference between national identity and regional identity using examples.
4. How does personal identity relate to cyber/fantasy identity? Be sure to define both terms.
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5. Using Phinney’s model, explain how someone might develop a cultural identity.
6. Using Martin and Nakayama’s models for minority development, majority development,
and biracial development, compare and contrast how cultural identity acquisition works
in each case.
7. List and describe at least two ways in which cultural identity can be enacted. Give a
personal example for each.
8. What is the role of identity in intercultural communication and how has it been impacted
by globalization?
9. What are stereotypes and how do people acquire them?
10. Explain why stereotypes interfere with intercultural communication. How can we avoid
stereotyping?
11. Define prejudice and provide an example.
12. Explain the four functions that prejudice may serve and give an example for each one.
13. Explain the concepts of societal sources, maintaining social identity, and scapegoating as
they relate to prejudice.
14. What is the difference between prejudice and racism? Define each and explain.
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15. What recommendations were made to avoid prejudice and racism? How are they
similar?
16. What is ethnocentrism? What impact does it have on intercultural communication?
17. Discuss each of the three characteristics of ethnocentrism described in the text. Be sure
to include the concepts of levels, universality, and contributions to cultural identity.
18. What recommendations did the authors offer readers to help them avoid ethnocentric
tendencies?
