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CHAPTER 06
Cultural Values:
Guidelines for Behavior
OVERVIEW
With the context of history and worldview to juxtapose against, Chapter Six examines the
concept of values. The authors begin by introducing caveats for understanding both perception
and values before embarking on discussion of various models used to categorize and organize
groups based on cultulral values. Models include: Kohls’ “The Values Americans Live By,”
Hofstede’s value dimensions,” Minkov’s monumentalism/flexhumility, Kluckhohn and
Strodtbeck’s cultural orientations, and Hall’s high/low context cultures. In addition, results of
the GLOBE study are presented along with a review of face/face-work and cultural patterns in
communication
OUTLINE
I. Understanding perception
A. Perception is selective
B. Perception is learned
C. Perception is culturally-determined
D. Perception is consistent
E. Perception is inaccurate
II. Understanding values
A. Cultural patterns
2. Cultural patterns are integrated
4. Cultural patterns can be contradictory
B. Selecting cultural patterns
III. Kohls’ “the values Americans live by”
A. Personal control over the environment
B. Change
C. Time and its control
D. Equality/egalitarianism
E. Individuality and privacy
F. Self-help control
G. Competition and free enterprise
H. Future orientation
I. Action/work orientation
J. Informality
K. Directness, openness, and honesty
L. Practicality and efficiency
M. Materialism/acquisitiveness
IV. Other cultural patterns
V. Hofstede’s value dimensions
A. Individualism/collectivism
1. Individualism
2. Collectivism
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2. Low uncertainty avoidance
C. Power distance
2. Low power distance
D. Masculinity/femininity
2. Femininity
E. Long- and short-term orientation
F. Indulgence/restraint
VI. Minkov’s monumentalism/flexhumility
VII. Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck’s value orientations
A. Human nature orientation
1. Evil
3. Good
B. Person/nature orientation
2. Harmony with nature
1. Past orientation
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3. Future orientation
D. Activity orientation
2. Being-in-becoming
3. Doing
VIII. Hall’s high-context and low-context orientations
A. High-context
B. Low-context
IX. The Globe study
A. Globe study cultural dimensions
2. Power distance
4. Collectivism- in-group
6. Assertiveness
8. Performance orientation
1. White dominant cultures
2. Scandinavia
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3. Central Europe
5. Southern Europe
7. Middle East
9. Northeast Asia
10. South and Southeast Asia
X. Face and facework
XI. Cultural patterns and communication
A. Individualism vs. collectivism
B. Egalitarianism vs. hierarchical
C. Low vs. high uncertainty avoidance
D. Monochromic vs. polychromic
E. Low vs. high context communication
F. Low vs. high face concerns
XII. Summary
ACTIVITIES
Activity 5-1: Tragedies, human nature orientation, and resource allocation
For the U.S. and many parts of the world, recent years have been populated by major tragedies
including an earthquake in the Indian Ocean that triggered a devastating Tsunami that killed tens
of thousands of people, an earthquake in Pakistan the killed nearly as many, and a hurricane that
damaged or destroyed much of the Gulf coast including extensive destruction in New Orleans.
To varying degrees, each of these tragedies received international attention. This activity asks
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students to take the role of an international response team sent to help people who are victims of
similar tragedies.
Scenario
A massive earthquake occurred in a heavily populated, industrialized urban center. Although
there are no estimates of casualties at this time, the infrastructure has sustained massive damage.
Power, water, and sanitation will be unavailable indefinitely, and basic needs such as food and
shelter will be needed for 1.5 million people displaced by the earthquake. As strategists for an
international response team, you are responsible for developing a broad response strategy. As
strategists for the response team, you must determine how to allocate the available resources for
the relief effort. Using the list below, decide what percentage of available resources will be
applied to each of the categories. Remember, your total must equal 100%.
1. _____ % Temporary supplies food and water for the population.
2. _____ % Rebuilding infrastructure to provide a stable source of food and
water.
4. _____ % Basic medical supplies.
6. _____ % Security to protect the displaced population.
8. _____ % Advanced medical equipment supplies for treating severe injuries.
10. _____ % Logistics and materials for evacuation.
12. _____ % Developing a structured chain of command to facilitate response team operations.
14. _____ % Training the population to be self-sufficient.
15. _____ % Long term planning and recovery for the affected area.
_____ % Total (sum total must be 100%)
Students can be broken into groups or respond to the allocation problem individually. Compare
the percentages and the way students allocated their resources and discuss how the distribution
reflects the human nature orientations described in the text.
Human nature is reflected in items 6, 11, and 13.
Humankind and nature is reflected in items 2, 3, 5, 9, 10, and 15.
Sense of time is reflected in items 1, 2, 3, 5, 9, 10, and 15.
Activity is reflected in items 7 and 14.
Social relationships is reflected in items 12 and 14.
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Discuss how each student or group’s responses to the questions highlight cultural values.
Students should be encouraged to debate how each of the items relate to cultural values.
Activity 6-2: Individualism/collectivism and uncertainty avoidance
According to a recent survey, the U.S. culture has the highest level of individualism (see table
6.1 on page 185) and one of the highest levels uncertainty avoidance (see table 6.2 on page 188).
Although both concepts are discussed in detail, the relationship between the two is left to the
reader to discern. This activity asks students to compare the two tables to determine what
patterns can be discovered. That is, are countries that are high in uncertainty avoidance more
likely to be high in individualism or collectivism, low in individualism or collectivism, or a
combination of the two? Below is a sampling of data that was derived from the tables.
Country Individualism Uncertainty
collectivism avoidance
United States ( 1/53) (43/53)
Australia ( 2/53) (37/53)
Sweden (10/53) (49/53)
Venezuela (50/53) (21/53)
Guatemala (53/53) ( 3/53)
Panama (51/53) (10/53)
Singapore (39/53) (53/53)
In some cases, it appears that high individualism is correlated with lower
tolerance for uncertainty (e.g., United States, Guatemala) while in other cases the
two seem unrelated (e.g., Singapore).
Possible discussion questions include:
• How would you describe the countries and cultures in which individualism is
highly valued? What is the relationship between these countries geographically,
economically, and politically?
• How would you describe the countries and cultures in which collectivism is
highly valued? What is the relationship between these countries geographically,
economically, and politically?
• How would you describe the countries and cultures in which avoiding uncertainty
is valued? What is the relationship between these countries geographically,
economically, and politically?
• How would you describe the countries and cultures in which avoiding uncertainty
is valued? What is the relationship between these countries geographically,
economically, and politically?
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• Do you think the individualism/collectivism orientation of a culture is related to
whether or not that culture values uncertainty avoidance? If so, do you think the
relationship is positive or negative? Linear or parabolic?
• Are individualistic cultures more or less likely to avoid uncertainty?
• Are collectivist cultures more or less likely to avoid uncertainty?
You may also choose to include the findings on power distance (table 6.3, page 189),
masculinity-feminity (table 6.4, page 191, although doing so will add significantly more
complexity to the task.
Activity 6-3: Values in children’s literature
This activity involves the examination of underlying cultural values as expressed through
children’s literature. Students should use Hofstede’s Value Dimensions:
Individualism/Collectivism
High/Low Uncertainty Avoidance
High/Low Power Distance
Masculinity/Femininity
Long/Short term Orientation
as well as Kluckhohns and Strodtbeck’s value orientations:
Human nature orientation (good or evil)
Person/nature orientation (subject, cooperative, control)
Time orientation (past, present, future)
Activity Orientation (being, being-in-becoming, doing)
The instructor may ask students to identify fairy tales themselves or provide a short story for
them. Once identified, students should categorize as many components of the story that they can
which reflect the values identified above. Finally, students should share their analysis.
Activity 6-4: Introspective analysis of U.S. Values
Arguably, any value taken to an absolute extreme is likely to seem logically absurd. In this
activity, we examine the values of the dominant culture in the U.S. as described in chapter 5.
Specifially, the values of:
• Individualism
• Equal opportunity
• Material Acquisition
• Science and technology
• Progress and change
• Work and play
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• Competitive nature
In this activity, students will be asked to identify interpret each value in a negative way as well
as a positive one. For example, promoting individualism is good because it allows people to be
self-reliant and resistant to the pressure of others. Taken to the extreme, however, individualism
ignores inter-relationships and responsibility/consequences of individualism on the larger
society. The point of the activity is not to denigrate the values themselves but rather to expose
the implications of those values. Most people would probably agree that material acquisition at
any cost is not a good thing, but some might. Is there such a thing as too much emphasis on
science/technology? Can we be too competitive?
Ask students to identify any other “common values” they can think of and engage in the same
process of identifying positive and negative aspects of the value. Write the examples on the
board, creating two lists: (1) a list of the best, positive examples for each of the listed values as
well as any others introduced by the students, and (2) the best negative examples.
Through the process, try to get students to think critically about their values independent of the
dominant cultural values. Ask students how they would guard against the negative
manifestations of the values without compromising the value itself?
SUPPLEMENTAL FILMS AND VIDEOS
Asian American Cultures (1992, 60 minutes)
This instructional video examines similarities and differences across groups of Asians. It not
only considers why Asian Americans are often called the “model minority,” but also illuminates
problems between first and second generations of Asian Americans.
Arab Americans (1993, 30 minutes)
This instructional video celebrates the cultural heritage of Arab Americans by examining the
traditions each group has brought to the U.S., when and why they immigrated, and how they
have preserved their identity in the process.
Hidden Faces (1990, 52 minutes)
This film portrays the lives of Muslim women in Egypt. In this collaborative documentary, a
young Egyptian woman living in Paris returns to Egypt and discovers complex frictions between
modernity and tradition as well as a disturbing renewal of fundamentalism.
Japanese Nonverbal Communication (1978, 20 minutes)
This instructional video depicts common Japanese facial expressions and gestures in formal and
informal social and business settings. It examines differences between Japanese men and women
and explores seating arrangements, greetings, and food service.
TEST ITEMS: CHAPTER 06
Multiple-Choice
1. Perception is considered selective because ____. (A) there are too many stimuli
competing for the attention of your senses; (B) life’s lessons teach you to see the world in
a particular way; (C) culture teaches you the meaning of most of your experiences;
(D) once you perceive something in a particular manner that interpretation does not
usually change
2. Because we view the world through a subjective lens influenced by a number of
variables, perception is considered: (A) selective; (B) learned; (C) inaccurate;
(D) consistent; (E) culturally determined
3. Values are important because they inform societies about ____. (A) what is good or bad;
(B) what is worth dying for; (C) how people should treat each other; (D) what is worth
protecting; (E) A, B, C, and D
4. Which of the following is not one of the thirteen American values identified by Kohls?
(A) personal control over the environment; (B) formality; (C) competition; (D) self-help;
(E) practicality/efficiency
5. Optimism and emphasis on the future reflect which of Kohls American values?
(A)idealism; (B) individualism; (C) time and its control; (D) change; (E) privacy
6. The self-help value according to Kohls, is an outgrowth of ____. : (A) independence;
(B) equality; (C) individuality; (D) A and C; (E) A, B, and C
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7. Which of the following is true about Hofstede’s dimension of individualism? (A) the
individual is most important unit in any social setting; (B) interdependence rather than
independence is stressed; (C) individual achievements are rewarded; (D) A and C; (E) A,
B, and C
8. Identify which country is not ranked in the top five in terms of the culture’s emphasis on
individualism? (A) United States; (B) Austria; (C) Great Britain; (D) Canada;
(E) Netherlands
9. Collectivism means the people in a culture place greater emphasis on: (A) the needs of
the in-group over oneself; (B) social norms and duty defined by in-group; (C) beliefs
shared with in-group; (D) great readiness to cooperate with in-group members; (E) A, B,
C, and D
10. The extent to which members of a culture feel threatened by ambiguous and unknown
situations is referred to as ____. (A) uncertainty avoidance; (B) tolerance for ambiguity;
(C) equivocality; (D) ethnocentricity; (E) neoplasticity
11. A high power distance culture ____. (A) holds that inequality should be minimized;
(B) believes superiors and subordinates should consider themselves equals; (C) believe
that people are not equal but that everyone has a ‘rightful place’; (D) powerful try to
appear less powerful; (E) A, B, C, and D
12. In masculine-oriented cultures, women are supposed to be: (A)men should be assertive,
tough, and focused; (B) women should be assertive, tough, and focused; (C) women
should be modest, tender, and concerned with quality of life; (D) A and C; (E) A and B
13. Cultures that foster virtues oriented toward future rewards—in particular, perseverance
and thrift, reflect what Hofstede called a ____. (A) short term orientation; (B) future bias;
(C) long term orientation; (D) future-oriented; (E) past progressive
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Answer: C Content: pp.191-192
14. The World Values Survey defined ____ as ‘a tendency to allow relatively free
gratification of basic and natural human desires related to enjoying life and having fun.’
(A) indulgent; (B) hedonistic; (C) opportunistic; (D) restrained; (E) secular
15. According to Minkov, which of the following is associated with flexhumility? (A) self-
pride; (B) holistic cognition; (C) religion is important; (D) lower value on education; (E)
suicide taboo
16. Monumentalism within a culture, according to Minkov, indicates that members believe
____. (A) self-concept is flexible; (B) interpersonal competition is encouraged; (C) truth
is relative; (D) education is highly valued; (E) A, B, C, and D
17. Identify which of the following is not among the five universal questions for cultures,
according to Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck. (A) what is the character of human nature?
(B) what is the relation of humankind to nature?; (C) what is the value of wealth;
(D) what is the relationship of people to each other? (E) what is the value placed on time?
18. The human nature orientation of a culture reflects the general belief____. (A) that
humans are intrinsically evil; (B) that humans are intrinsically good; (C) that humans are
a mixture of good and evil; (D) A, B, and C; (E) that good and evil have no meaning
19. In terms of the person/nature orientation, Western cultures traditionally view: (A) humans
as subject to nature; (B) humans in harmony with nature; (C) humans as natures’
providers; (D) humans as master of nature; (E) nature as humans’ provider
20. What time orientation do most Americans in the United States favor? (A) past; (B) future;
(C) present; (D) linearity; (E) polychromic
21. The activity orientation of being-in-becoming ____: (A) is evident in most Latino
cultures; (B) reflects value of spiritual over material life; (C) is reflective of the
dominant U.S. culture; (D) stresses development and growth; (E) B and D
22. Low context cultures include all of the following except: (A) German; (B) North
American; (C) Native American; (D) English; (E) French
23. The GLOBE Study differentiated between two types of collectivism: (A) in-group and
societal; (B) in-group and out-group; (C) ethnic and inter-ethnic; (D) local and national;
(E) selective and exhaustive
24. The following countries belong in same societal group, according to the GLOBE study.
(A) Canada, England, United States; (B) Finland, Sweden, Denmark; (C) Turkey, Egypt,
Kuwait; (D) China, Japan, Taiwan; (E) A, B, C, and D
25. In the context of chapter 6, face refers to ____. (A) a superficial view of someone;
(B) how you are perceived by others; (C) the self-image you want to project; (D) A and
C; (E) B and C
Answer: pp. 208-209
True/False
1. Perception is learned because once you perceive something in a particular way, which
interpretation does not usually change.
2. Perception is inaccurate because you view the world through a subjective lens influenced
by culture, values, and personal experiences which tend to make you see what you
want/expect to see.
3. Cultural patterns are integrated and can be contradictory.
4. According to Kohls, the U.S. values tradition over change.
5. Cultures that promote interdependency and cooperation take a negative view of intra-
group competition.
6. The American preference for a large selection of material items to choose from is
illustrated by typical supermarkets, and the number of choices at Subway.
7. Individual orientation vs. group orientation is thought of as one of the basic pattern
variables that determine human action.
8. Collectivism in the United States is seen in the expectation that employees will change
jobs in order to advance their careers.
9. Countries ranked highest for individualism include Venezuela, Panama, Ecuador, and
Guatemala.
10. Japan is a low uncertainty culture with many formal social protocols that help to predict
how people will behave in almost every social interaction.
11. Countries whose cultures reflect a comfort with uncertainty (low uncertainty avoidance)
include Greece, Portugal, and Guatemala.
12. Cultures with high power distance emphasize status differences.
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13. The United States is among the top five countries for high power distance.
14. A society is called feminine when emotional gender roles overlap—both men and women
are expected to be modest, tender, and concerned with quality of life.
15. The indulgence/restraint dimension reflects a cultures orientation toward disciplining the
young.
16. Flexhumility cultures place less value on education than monumentalist ones.
17. Confucianism and Buddhism support the notion that human nature is good.
18. Chinese culture has a strong focus on the present time orientation.
19. Most Latino cultures consider the current activity as the one that matters the most.
20. High-context cultures tend to convey meaning through status and informal friends and
associates.
21. For low-context cultures, the verbal message contains most of the information and very
little is embedded in the context or the person’s nonverbal activity.
22. Humane orientation refers to the degree to which societal and organizational members
acquiesce to unequal distribution of power.
23. Societal collectivism and in-group collectivism are two terms that mean the same thing.
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24. In collectivist cultures, a person’s face is usually derived from his or her own self-effort.
Short Answer/Essay
1. What is perception? Explain the characteristics of perception.
2. Define values and provide at least two intercultural examples.
3. Explain what is meant by the term ‘cultural patterns.’ What caveats to the term do the
authors present?
4. List and explain at least six of the thirteen values identified by Kohls as “The Values
Americans live by.”
Content: pp. 177-184
5. Explain how contradictions in the value of equality/egalitarianism explained in U.S.
culture?
6. Identify and explain three common U.S. phrases that reflect the American value of
7. Compare and contrast Hofstede’s concepts of individualism and collectivism.
8. What is uncertainty avoidance? Provide an example of a culture that has high uncertainty
avoidance and one that has low uncertainty avoidance.
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9. Is the U.S. a high or a low power distance culture? Explain the concepts and justify your
answer.
Content: pp. 188-190
10. Discuss Hofstede’s masculinity/femininity dimension. Provide an example of each.
11. Explain what is meant by the term ‘monumentalism’ and contrast that with the concept of
flexhumility.
12. What does your culture tell you about human nature? Give an example of a culture with a
different orientation.
13. Differentiate between the concepts of being, being-in-becoming, and doing.
Content: pp. 199-200
14. What do the terms high-context and low-context mean? Provide cultural examples of
each.
Content: pp. 201-203
15. How did the GLOBE study extend the previous dimensions of culture?
16. Identify five of the ten GLOBE study cultural dimensions.
Content: pp. 203-204
17. What are the major characteristics associated any five of the following GLOBE
societal/geographical groups? (a) White Dominant; (b) Scandinavia; (c) Central Europe;
(d) Eastern Europe; (e) Southern Europe; (f) Africa; (g) the Middle East; (h) Central and
South America; (I) Northeast Asia; (j) South and Southeast Asia.
Content: pp. 204-208
18. Explain the concepts of face and face-work. How are they manifest in collectivistic and
individualistic cultures?