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CHAPTER 04
Culture History:
Our Antecedents
OVERVIEW
Chapter four contextualizes the study of intercultural communication by providing overviews of
cultural histories. Although far from exhaustive, the chapter provides both the cultural
background and a historical sketch of the United States, Russia, China, Japan, India, Mexico, and
Islamic civilizations. In addition, contemporary social issues facing each culture are also
addressed.
OUTLINE
I. The importance of history
II. United States history
A. Background
3. Individuality
5. Violence and war
7. Freedom and independence
B. Contemporary social issues
2. Same-sex marriage
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3. Prayer in school
III. Russian history
A. Background
2. Historical political heritage
4. Values
a. Patriotism
b. State role in world affairs
c. State-centeredness
B. Contemporary social issues
1. Widespread political corruption
3. Constraints on economic productivity
4. Growing resentment and violence toward ethnic groups by nationalists
2. Geographic location and size
4. Chinese Communist Party (CCP) 1949
5. Political and economic modernization begins late 1970s
6. In 2010, China became the largest exporter and second largest economy
B. Communicating history
2. History as a form of communication
C. Contemporary social issues
2. Perception of widespread official corruption, growing social inequality,
and rising unemployment.
3. Effects of the “one–child” rule
V. Japanese history
A. Background
2. Era of national seclusion (1603-1867)
4. Forcibly opened by Western powers in the mid 19th century
6. The Tokugawa historical tradition
a. Strict codes of behavior for every aspect of life
7. World War II (1941-1945)
a. National programs to modernize in response to Western influence
b. Imperialistic expansion into Asia in the 1930s
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c. Industrial and military capacity nearly nonexistent after WWII
d. By mid 1980s, Japan had become a leading global economy
e. Passivism a cultural value, partly in response to the atomic bombs
dropped by Western forces on Hiroshima and Nagasaki
f. A reluctance to engage military except in self-defense
B. Contemporary social issues
1. Era of globalization
3. Immigration issues
5. Ethnocentrism and internationalization
1. Influential past, contemporary influence
2. Rich diversity in geography, peoples, cultures, languages
a. World’s largest democracy
b. 15% of the world’s population live in India (1.17 billion)
c. Indus River Valley Inhabitants
d. Alexander the Great and Nomadic Aryans
e. Maurya Empire and Gupta Dynasty
f. Buddhism and Hinduism, cultural value for religious tolerance
g. Muslim Raiders and the Delhi Sultanate
h. The Mughal Empire (The Taj Mahal was built during this era)
i. The Silk Road and the East India Company
j. The Indian National Congress
k. Independence from Britain in 1947 created two separate states:
India and Pakistan (Hindu and Muslim)
l. Benefits of economic growth in the 1990s disproportionately
distributed
B. Contemporary social issues
1. Small, highly educated population in IT and service industries
2. More than half the population live in rural areas
3. 40% of the population is illiterate
4. 25% live below the official poverty line
5. Widespread official corruption
6. Lack of primary school education
7. The schism between Muslim and Hindu
VII. Mexican history
A. Background
2. Third largest trading partner of the United States
4. 16% of the total population of the United States (2010 US Census)
B. Pre-Columbian era (300 BCE – 1591 CE)
2. Mexicans are extremely proud of this era
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1. Hernando Cortes and the Spanish invasion in 1519
3. Spanish military wrought three major changes
a. Introduction of Catholicism and conversion to Christianity
b. Imposition of a rigid social class system
c. Vast tracts of land was granted to Spanish conquerors
4. The Hacienda system
D. Independence from Spain
2. Executed in 1811,Mexican independence came 20 years later
4. Final independence in 1824, though neither independence from Spain nor
1. Texas declares independence from Mexico
3. Mexican War, 1846-1848 (Considered Mexico’s greatest disaster)
a. Mexico ceded 55% of its territory (Arizona, California, New
Mexico, Texas, parts of Colorado, Nevada, and Utah)
b. U.S. paid 15 million in compensation for war-related damage to
Mexican property
c. War created bitterness and hostility not only in Mexico but
throughout Latin America
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1. Mexican Revolution of 1910
3. Introduced widespread social change by rejecting European model
G. Modern Mexico
2. NAFTA (1994)
H. Contemporary social issues
2. Narco-violence and drug cartels (35,000 casualties between 2006-2010)
3. Insecurity and disillusionment at all levels of society
VIII. Islamic civilization
A. Muslim demographics
2. 1/5 of the world’s population
B. The age of ignorance (Jahiliya)
2. Arab values of bravery in battler, patience in misfortune, persistence in
3. Loyalty to tribe was paramount, intertribal warfare
4. Early groups annually suspended hostilities to conduct a pilgrimage to
Mecca
C. The rise and spread of Islam
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2. No clear line of succession after the death of Muhammed in 632 CE.
a. Void filled by the “Rightly Guided Caliphs”
b. Many Arab groups sought to disassociate themselves from the
Caliphs
c. Caliphs sent armed groups to suppress dissenters and subdued the
nomadic tribes within a few years
d. The conquests established a large, new empire and the political and
organizational structure necessary for the spread of Islam
e. The death of the last of the caliphates who had known Muhammad
died ushered in the Umayyad Caliphate
3. Umayyad Caliphate (661CE – 750 CE)
a. Continued questions regarding succession led to civil wars
b. Produced the major division in Islam: Sunni and Shiite
c. Today 87-90% of Muslims are Sunni
4. Sunnis and Shiites
a. Sunnis believe the leader of Islam should be whoever is best
qualified
b. Shiites believe leadership is through heredity, through lineage
traced to Muhammad
c. Sunni history reflected victories of imperial Islam and the four
“Rightly Guided Caliphs”
d. Shiite history reflected the struggle of the disinherited and
disposed
5. The Abbasid Caliphate (749 CE – 1258 CE)
a. Ruling Arab hierarchy supplanted by multiethnic Muslims
6. The final era of unified Islamic governance
a. Mongol Invaders
b. The Ottomans
c. Ottoman Empire challenged by European powers in the 17th and
18th centuries
D. Legacy of history
1. Unity reinforced in contemporary Muslims through language, geography ,
and tribal affiliation
2. Conquest and colonization is an oversimplification of the history
E. Contemporary social issues
1. Islamic history a matter of both pride and humiliation
a. During the Dark Ages of Europe, Islam represented the most
advanced civilization in the world
b. Many Muslims dissatisfied with current social conditions in their
countries
1. Authoritative, repressive regimes
3. Absence of democracy
5. Lack of equality for women
6. An expanding population, the majority under 25
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2. Only 20% of the Arab world supports Islamist parties, such
as the Muslim Brotherhood
IX. Summary
ACTIVITIES
Activity 4-1: What if . . .
This activity illustrates not only the great diversity of world views held by different cultures but
also how those world views affect and are affected by deep economic, political, and social
structures. To begin, divide the class into groups of four to six students. Ask each group to give
examples of what a society would be like if it held each of the beliefs listed below. In other
words, students should imagine what the deep structure of a culture that held each of the
following beliefs would “look like.” For example, what religions would likely flourish? What
types of laws or political practices might prevail? What kind of an economy would students
expect? What might the family structures and social interactions be like? Some of the statements
may need to be explained to students. After the class regroups, ask for students’ speculations
about each of the ten beliefs.
What would a society be like if its’ members believed…
• in reincarnation and karma?
• that all other people are infidels or nonbelievers?
• that all events in the world are determined by Fate?
• that a person’s worth is determined solely by his/her “high” or “low” birth?
• in the passive approach to life as preferable to an action orientation?
• that certain ethnic or racial groups are intellectually inferior and emotionally
immature?
• that elderly people are to be revered, honored, and deferred to in all instances?
• that aesthetic values are of supreme importance and should be used to determine
every major issue in life?
• that the rights of groups are more important than those of the individual?
• that women are superior to men?
Possible discussion questions following the exercise:
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• Clearly, some cultures hold one, two, or more of these beliefs as the basis of their
culture. Do any of these beliefs reflect dominant U.S. culture? What other cultures
are represented? How do you know this?
• How do you personally feel about some of these world views? Are any of them
“wrong” or “right”?
• If you had to leave your native culture and choose another society to live in,
which one would you choose and why? Which society would you never choose to
live in and why?
Activity 4-2: Business in Bangkok*
This activity illustrates how the same situation can be perceived quite differently by individuals
from two different cultures. Students will examine a case study and isolate the different
perceptions manifested in the participants’ behavior. Divide the class into groups of four to six
students. Have each group read the following case study and answer the questions that follow.
When the class regroups, have each group report their responses. To assist instructors in
debriefing students, a short explanation of the case study is provided at the end of this activity.
Shawna had recently been assigned to her agency’s Bangkok office. At first she was very
impressed with the willingness shown by the people with whom she worked to carry out the
program she was trying to implement. Soon, however, she discovered that her deadlines were not
being met. People who had agreed to do something didn’t always show up, and materials were
disappearing from the workrooms but no one seemed inclined to find out what had happened to
them. With all of these setbacks, Shawna’s program was sure to go at least slightly, perhaps even
significantly, over budget. She was becoming increasingly frustrated and was about to issue an
ultimatum: “Shape up or ship out!” However, her Thai supervisors didn’t seem to be at all upset
and kept saying, “Mai pen rai,” which means “It doesn’t really matter . . .don’t worry about it.”
• How did Shawna perceive the situation described above? What value orientations
was she using to form her perceptions?
• How did her Thai employees and supervisors perceive the situation? What value
orientations were they using to form their perceptions?
• Would you say that one set of perceptions was more “correct” or “better” than the
other? Do you think anyone behaved “incorrectly” or “badly”?
• What changes (if any) would you suggest to Shawna? What changes (if any)
would you suggest to her Thai employees and supervisors?
Possible discussion questions following the exercise:
• What were your initial perceptions of the case study? How did you perceive the
Thai employees supervisors? How did you perceive Shawna’s frustration with
them?
• How could Shawna have prepared herself for the customs and behavior of her
new employees and supervisors? How could her employees and supervisors have
prepared themselves for Shawna’s expectations?
• Whose responsibility was it to become culturally informed?
• What situations have you been in where your perceptions of how something
should be done were in direct contrast with another person’s? Were cultural
differences in perception at work in this situation?
• How did you handle the differences in perception? How do you wish you had
handled the situation?