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8 % Part III: Genres of Writing [ 145 ]

Reviewers— whether ordinary people deciding whether they like a product

or critics deciding whether they like a cultural production— are in the business of

making judgments. Making judgments is always an ethical activity, and so those

writing reviews need to keep this at the forefront of their consciousness.

Teaching lit er a ture reviews. The ﬁ nal section of this chapter before the Roadmap

and readings goes over the uses and features of lit er a ture reviews. In the natu–

ral, social, and applied sciences, the lit er a ture review section of an essay sets up

the study being reported in what can be termed teleological fashion: given previ-

ous research, I, the author, am asking the next logical question and answering it

To help students with this task, have them read Crystal Aymelek’s lit er a ture

review (pp. 319–24) with a focus on how the review is structured. Students should

appreciate that a lit er a ture review always represents a review that is part report

(with a focus on a narrow body of empirical research), part narrative (in that there

paragraph doing? How does it move the lit er a ture review along? The opening para-

graph, for example, describes how human memory works according to information-

pro cessing theory, and it functions to provide background necessary for the

discussion in the next paragraph. As students will start to see, the function will

(almost) always involve linking previous information to information that occurs in

later paragraphs.

The second round of analy sis would involve having students focus on par tic-

u lar textual features and strategies Aymelek uses to construct her text. You might,

for example, ask dif fer ent groups of students to focus on:

1. the ways that information is reported and cited (e.g., “According to

information-pro cessing theory,” “Research has shown”).

[ 146 ]

Noting these ele ments and the language used to establish them will help students

learn the impor tant features of a lit er a ture review and then to write their own.

To help them begin the pro cess of writing a lit er a ture review, have students

bring in the sources they’ve gathered on their topic and/or any notes they’ve taken

from these sources. The ﬁ rst step is to or ga nize the sources: ask students to sepa–

Teaching the essays. Looking closely at the example essays can help students see

the Characteristic Features in action, understand how these features function in

reviews, and think about how they could use them in their own writing.

“Mono poly: The Scandal Behind the World’s Favorite Board Game,” by Tim Alamen–

ciak (pp. 314–16). This review is annotated so that students can clearly identify the

genre features and see how they function in the essay. As they’ll see, Alamenciak

works hard to demonstrate his attention to the audience’s needs and expectations

“The Effects of Mindfulness Meditation and Exercise on Memory,” by Crystal

Aymelek (pp. 319–24). This lit er a ture review comes from an essay Aymelek wrote

for one of her psy chol ogy courses, a ﬁ eld where the IMRAD format for reports is

expected. Aymelek demonstrates her awareness of her audience’s expectations—

here, psychologists—in terms of the information presented, the structuring of her

claims, and the format she uses for presenting references. It might be helpful to

“Ode to Joy (and Sadness, and Anger),” by A. O. Scott (pp. 331–35). Scott reviews the

ﬁ lm Inside Out. Pos si ble answers to the study questions are given below. The audi-

ence, readers of the New York Times, is a quite general one; the straight path Scott

[ TEACHING WITH EVERY ONE’S AN AUTHOR ]

8 % Part III: Genres of Writing [ 147 ]

1. In his extremely positive review of Inside Out, A. O. Scott contends that

this Pixar ﬁ lm uses technology to overcome a common criticism of movies,

namely, that they cannot get inside characters’ heads but must, instead,

rely on giving viewers hints about characters’ mental pro cesses. As Scott

2. Scott establishes his credibility in at least three ways. Throughout, he con-

textualizes his discussion of the ﬁ lm in terms of longstanding debates

among phi los o phers and students of lit er a ture and cinema; in other words,

the achievements of the ﬁ lm are about far more than merely the story it

tells. Second, he often describes the ﬁ lm’s characters and events with ref–

3. Scott assumes a well- read, cosmopolitan audience well versed in many

debates that are part of the Western intellectual tradition. His vocabulary

is sometimes quite sophisticated (e.g., bonhomie, neurological command

center as a way of referring to brain functions). He uses meta phors and

allusions from popu lar culture (dream team) and the world of work (orga-

nizational chart, micro– management). As noted, he also compares charac–

4. Scott opens his review with a rhetorical question— “Can movies think?”—

pointing out that traditionally, many have argued that while lit er a ture is

able to demonstrate characters’ thought pro cesses and internal feelings,

“Serial: A Captivating New Podcast,” by Anya Schultz (pp. 336–39). Schultz’s review

combines details about this popu lar podcast with useful evaluative observations

about why it is so popu lar. Here are pos si ble responses to the study questions:

[ 148 ]

Slate) and that she has thought critically about the podcast— both its con-

tent and its framing. Her tone is quite positive— the unfolding melodrama

will keep her listening— even while she is aware of the sobering social

implications of what this podcast is unveiling. Words that help create that

2. Schultz is quite positive in her evaluation of the podcast. Her evidence

for that evaluation includes the artfulness of the storytelling: “Koenig’s

style allows us to stumble through the story with her, as if we’re hearing

Sherlock Holmes’ diary. What keeps the story thrilling is that someone, be

it Adnan or a perpetrator who we haven’t been introduced to yet, is lying.

Someone is a murderer” (¶7); “But as the season goes on, it gives listeners a

unique opportunity to humanize the players” (¶13). Her analy sis of theme

3. The criteria for evaluation Schultz uses include (a) plot— the commitment

of the series’ creator “to get to the bottom of the case” (¶4); (b) framing

and sequencing of the unfolding narrative— the appeal of the series and

its ability to capture listeners’ attention and imagination (¶3), the sense

that listeners are discovering things as Koenig uncovers them (¶7), the

4. Were Schultz to write this review for an older audience, she might have

to motivate their interest in the case itself since older listeners would likely

be far away from adolescent romantic relationships. (Perhaps Schultz could

compare Lee and Syed’s relationship to that of Juliet and Romeo, an allusion

distantly hinted at in the review.) Some older listeners might also make

very dif fer ent assumptions about issues relating to race and justice— and

5. Answers will vary.

[ TEACHING WITH EVERY ONE’S AN AUTHOR ]

8 % Part III: Genres of Writing [ 149 ]

Additional readings. If you’re teaching with Every one’s an Author with Readings,

the Menu of Readings on the inside back cover can direct you to additional selections.

You can also ﬁ nd fresh readings that offer reviews— and that do so in a variety of

Chapter 16: Writing a Proposal / “ Here’s What I Recommend”

Like all the genres taught in this section of Every one’s an Author, proposals are

ubiquitous in daily life, and students are likely to encounter them— and have occa–

sion to write them— long after leaving your classroom. Advertisements generally

represent truncated proposals (“Buy me!”), and the internet has given rise to a num-

ber of crowdsourcing or crowdfunding sites housing proposals of varying degrees

of sophistication. And as far as academic proposals go, students will likely be

Introducing the genre. One of the most common places to ﬁ nd proposals today is

on crowdfunding sites that have become ubiquitous across the internet. These

sites include Kickstarter, which is used as an example in this chapter; GoFundMe,

which is mentioned in an exercise; Indiegogo; RocketHub; and Fundrazr, to name

only a few— and that’s only for English- language users. An in ter est ing way to intro–

duce the genre would be to have small groups of students compare three or four

crowdfunding proposals, listing the features they share as well as those that occur

Using the exercises. The chapter includes four exercises in italics and marked

with a red ﬂ ourish that prompt students to pause and Reﬂ ect. Across the chapter,

these exercises help students internalize not only the features of the genre but

also the ways in which they work together, and they encourage and model

[ 150 ]

Introducing the genre features. The ﬁ ve features we’ve identiﬁ ed of successful

proposals are listed on p. 343. The sections that follow elaborate upon them with

examples that illustrate each. Reviewing these examples with your students can

A precise description of the prob lem. Obviously, if one is going to propose a way of

solving a prob lem, one must be able to deﬁ ne the prob lem clearly and precisely. For

students, the challenges in this aspect of proposal writing take several forms. Some

students will want to bite off more than anyone can chew: bringing peace to the

Middle East, reforming the tax code or immigration policy, and ending world hun-

ger are surely larger and more complex prob lems than anyone can propose viable

One exercise to help students clearly and narrowly deﬁ ne a prob lem begins

with a speciﬁ c campus issue. Divide students into groups and have each group for–

mulate a description of the prob lem, then compare the formulations dif fer ent groups

came up with. Rather than focusing on which group has produced the “right” or

even “best” description, it will be useful to ask the class to comment on the strengths

A clear and compelling solution to the prob lem. To pres ent a solution in a way that

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8 % Part III: Genres of Writing [ 151 ]

with a single solution. Other groups may wish to propose several solutions (infor–

mation that will be useful in working through later on when considering alternate

solutions); ask these groups to rank their list of solutions. Once each group has a

solution, the group should draft a paragraph summarizing and/or describing the

solution being proposed.

Evidence that your proposal will address the prob lem. This feature focuses on the

criterion of viability. First, the author must provide evidence to demonstrate that

her or his proposed solution will, in fact, address the prob lem and, ideally, solve

it or make pro gress toward doing so. As the vari ous examples in the chapter

demonstrate, such evidence can take several forms: hy po thet i cal cases (Oliver on

pp. 370–72), prior research and pre ce dent (Sandberg and Grant on pp. 366–69), logic

in the sense of being likely to be adopted, whether that involves matters of short–

or long– term costs (of any kind) or feasibility.

Acknowl edgment of other pos si ble solutions. Strong, convincing proposals generally

acknowledge other pos si ble solutions in a way that demonstrates the superiority

of the proposal being put forth. In other words, they offer arguments of compara-

tive advantage rather than, say, arguments that seek to vitiate (or eviscerate) alter–

natives completely. Remind students that arguments based on logical appeals

A statement of what your proposal will accomplish. The most effective proposals

make a point of stating explic itly what the proposed course of action would, if

adopted, accomplish. While they often do so early in the proposal, it can help to

[ 152 ]

Teaching proj ect proposals. Proj ect proposals are an increasingly common genre of

assignment across a range of disciplines. They permit an instructor to get a fairly

clear idea of which students are on track for major assignments and which ones

need additional support for or a complete re orientation to the task. In this regard

they help both parties: instructors get much better proj ects than they likely other–

wise would, and students don’t waste time doing things that aren’t relevant to what

the assignment requires. Proj ect proposals also function heuristically, reminding

In some disciplines, a lit er a ture review evaluating existing research on a

topic is required as part of a proj ect proposal. (Send students to pp. 317–18 in Ch. 15

for guidelines on writing lit er a ture reviews.) Students may also be required to pro-

vide a detailed description of the methodology they plan to use and perhaps to

include materials such as drafts of interview questions or data sets they plan to

study. As an instructor, you’ll want to make clear to students what is required of

use an indirect question instead. For example, for a research paper in a course on

American lit er a ture, a student might write, “Based on the correspondence of Zora

Neale Hurston and other biographical resources, this proj ect investigates the

complex relationship between Hurston and three of her white patrons: Annie

Nathan Meyer, Charlotte Osgood Mason, and Fannie Hurst.” The researcher would

then make clear what sorts of resources exist to be analyzed and what will be

learned from such an examination.

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8 % Part III: Genres of Writing [ 153 ]

Teaching the essays. Looking closely at the example essays can help students see

the Characteristic Features in action, understand how these features function in

proposals, and think about how they could use them in their own writing.

“A New Start for Newark Schools,” by Ras Baraka (pp. 352–55). In this proposal

Baraka does a good job describing the prob lem by laying out the history of how it

came to be— and proposing a compelling solution. His solution is one that should

be familiar to those who have thought about many American po liti cal debates:

It may also be worth spending some time talking about the role that propos-

als play in po liti cal debate in the United States and the ways that politics run

through this par tic u lar proposal. Some students may have little knowledge of

New Jersey politics, and it would be helpful for understanding this proposal to know

“The Economic Impact of Investing Public Funds in Professional Sports Franchises,”

by David Pasini (pp. 357–60). This proj ect proposal, written in advance of a larger

research proj ect in a ﬁ rst– year writing course focused on sports in American soci–

ety, has been annotated to show the features of the proj ect proposal genre. Pasini

is explicit in his proposal about his topic, his motivations, his research question,

and planned methods for studying it. His outline of his proposed schedule and

“Speaking While Female,” by Sheryl Sandberg and Adam Grant (pp. 366–69). In this

proposal, Sandberg and Grant describe an enduring prob lem— the challenge

women have being heard (or even permitted to speak) in professional contexts.

Paragraph 4 crisply states the prob lem, and the preceding and following

[ 154 ]

paragraphs provide clear evidence for its indisputability. Paragraphs 1–3 open the

proposal by citing anecdotal evidence that gives the prob lem a human face, while

¶5–9 follow up with evidence from empirical studies to demonstrate that the situa-

tion cannot be dismissed as mere anecdote. Paragraphs 10–14 offer pos si ble solu–

tions, acknowledging the need for short– and long- term thinking. Fi nally, it is worth

1. In ¶5, Sandberg and Grant characterize the double bind that women ﬁ nd

themselves in in the workplace: when a woman speaks up, she is likely to

be ignored or to be labeled aggressive. In contrast, men are often rewarded

for speaking up. (As a study by co– author Grant, cited later in the article,

demonstrated, although men are more conﬁ dent about their leadership

2. The authors suggest pos si ble solutions in ¶10–14. Short– term solutions

include innovation tournaments (¶10), “no- interruption rules” (¶11), and

what they term “Obama- style meetings,” where women are offered the ﬂ oor

“whenever pos si ble” (¶14). A long– term solution is to “increase the number

of women in leadership roles” (¶13); they again cite empirical evidence for

ing that they operate on the basis of the merit of employees’ ideas, regard-

less of aspects of their identity that may be the basis for vari ous biases. In

this regard, the authors’ argument can be seen as a part of a much larger

argument about how our society should be thinking about diversity, par–

ticularly in the workplace.

4. Sandberg and Grant chose to write for readers of the New York Times, the

national newspaper of rec ord. Hence, they were aware they were possibly

addressing a broad segment of the educated populace at the national level

(and even internationally). Had they been writing instead for an audience

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8 % Part III: Genres of Writing [ 155 ]

ﬁ led by groups of women). They might also have gone into greater detail

about the subtle and not– so- subtle ways in which this gender bias mani-

fests itself. They could surely have assumed greater knowledge of the

intricacies of the private workplace and the challenges of management

5. Answers will vary.

“Let’s Start an Education Revolution,” by Mitchell Oliver (pp. 370–72). In this pro–

posal, student Mitchell Oliver takes on what is surely the major challenge facing

most students today: student debt. In other words, he’s clearly chosen a compel-

ling prob lem to tackle, and his proposed solution— human capital contracts

(HCCs)— borrows from the thinking of certain neo- liberal theorists. Oliver’s pro-

posal has all the genre features described in the chapter: a precise description of

the prob lem (¶1, as well as later discussion of the status quo— e.g., the opening sen-

to any college they wanted for free”). Following are pos si ble answers to the ques–

tions for thinking about the text:

1. Oliver proposes a solution to the student debt crisis: the government will

act as guarantor of Human Capital Contracts, which will pay for students’

students (¶9–11); and offers hy po thet i cal examples of how the system

would work for students under dif fer ent circumstances (¶9–11). Evalua-

tion of the strength of this evidence will vary.

3. Oliver acknowledges that his proposal can be seen as offering a “negative

incentive to land a high paying job” (¶12), but seeks to neutralize or rebut

[ 156 ]

4. Oliver seeks to establish credibility in several ways. First, he writes as

someone who knows (or appears to know) what he is talking about. He

uses phrases like negative incentive common in discussion of business or

economics; he explains complex concepts like a human capital contract

Additional readings. If you’re teaching with Every one’s an Author with Readings,

the following selections at the back of the book also demonstrate the proposal

genre:

Mark Bittman et al., “A National Food Policy Could Save Millions of American

Lives”

You can also ﬁ nd fresh readings that make proposals— and that do so in a variety

Suggested assignments and evaluation criteria. You’ll ﬁ nd sample assignments

for a proposal in the “Sample Writing Assignments” section of this Guide that can help

you craft your own assignment and criteria for evaluation. There are several ways

[ TEACHING WITH EVERY ONE’S AN AUTHOR ]

[ 157 ]

THIS SECTION OF THE BOOK can be used as the core of a course in argumen-

tation and as a reference for details about analyzing and supporting an

argument.

If you’re teaching a course in argumentation, you could pair this section with

Chs. 1, 2, 3, and 4—on THINKING RHETORICALLY, RHETORICAL SITUATIONS, READING RHETORI–

CALLY, and MEETING THE DEMANDS OF ACADEMIC WRITING. Ch. 11, on ARGUING A POSITION, and

perhaps some of the Research chapters could also be useful. You might start by

These chapters can also work as a reference, somewhere students can turn to

from other chapters when they need help crafting an argument. Chapter 17

explains impor tant concepts to help students in ANALYZING AND CONSTRUCTING ARGU–

MENTS, those they read as well as those they write. You might refer students to this

chapter from any of the genre chapters for help making the three basic appeals,

Chapter 17: Analyzing and Constructing Arguments /

Those You Read, Those You Write

What ever the shape of your writing course, it’s likely that you will want your stu-

dents to be familiar with the material in this chapter, since argument features

prominently in many college assignments, even informal ones. The chapter

nine

Part IV: The Centrality of Argument

[ 158 ]

teaches students how to analyze an argument, making them aware of the ele-

ments of an argument and what makes arguments persuasive. As such, the chap-

ter will help students consider arguments they read or other wise encounter with

You might open discussion of the chapter, then, by asking students to list

everyday arguments they have run into in the last day or so—in other classes, in

their newsfeeds, at their jobs or in extracurricular activities, or with friends and

family. The purpose of this discussion is to broaden students’ understanding of

What’s the Stance? The ﬁ rst section of the chapter asks students to think about

where an argument is coming from, and what that tells us about its author’s

stance. This simple question can lead to complex answers demanding quite a bit

of analy sis. You might want to bring in one or two easy- to- understand examples

of short arguments— perhaps an advertisement or a very short editorial from the

What’s the Claim? The discussion of claims on pp. 383–87 gives you a chance to

work with students on how to identify and analyze claims made by others— and

help students understand the relationship between the basic claim they want to

make and the thesis statement in which it’s usually embedded in college writing.

This section has examples of argumentative claims, from W. E. B. Du Bois on Abra–

ham Lincoln to a review of dancer Judith Jamison to a New Yorker cover showing

Sesame Street’s Bert and Ernie, implicitly commenting on the Supreme Court’s

overturning of the Defense of Marriage Act. Because power ful claims are often

Stasis theory, used from the time of the ancients to the pres ent day in order to ﬁ nd

the crux of any issue, is introduced to students on pp. 387–89. We have used Hur–

ricane Katrina as an example to work through the stasis questions; you might

take a particularly hot topic on campus and ask students to do the same thing. As

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9 % Part IV: The Centrality of Argument [ 159 ]

they work through the questions, they should see that the stasis questions are

generative— they provide differing perspectives on an issue or topic and thus can

help students both unpack the issue and ﬁ nd impor tant things to say about it. At

this point, you might ask students to choose a claim made in one of the examples

Emotional, ethical, and logical appeals. Students are usually fairly quick to pick up

on emotional appeals (pp. 389–90), though they may have been taught to ignore or

denigrate them. You might want to point out that current research indicates that

most people make decisions based more on emotion than on anything else and

tics? What kind of ethos does the Preface proj ect— and what words or statements

make them think so? You can also look closely at the Lawrence Lessig and Nelson

Mandela examples in this chapter, working with students to further articulate

the ethos developed in each.

Logical appeals (pp. 394–400) will be more familiar, and students will likely

give more credence to them than to other kinds of appeals since Western society

tends to privilege logic. It’s impor tant, then, to ask students to “get to the bottom”

of any logical appeals by asking where they come from and if those sources are

credible and reliable. As Mark Twain famously noted, there are three kinds of lies:

“lies, damned lies, and statistics.” Student readers need to remember Twain’s cau–

Fallacies of reasoning are covered on pp. 400–402. Our students usually have great

fun identifying fallacies in other people’s writing, so you might ask them to work

together to uncover fallacies in, say, a New York Times editorial: even professional

[ 160 ]

Ways of Structuring Arguments. The chapter ends with approaches to structuring

an argument, introducing students to four potential structures. The section on the

classical argument, derived from ancient Greece and Rome, offers detailed advice

and examples on how to use this approach to or ga nize an argument. A second

approach, the Toulmin method, expands the argumentative structure to include

attention to warrants— those often unspoken assumptions under lying a claim—

as well as necessary ele ments such as qualiﬁ ers. It’s worth looking closely at this

section with students, helping them understand the somewhat unfamiliar termi-

You can also help students assimilate these structures by asking them to

look at Katherine Spriggs’ argument “On Buying Local” (pp. 150–58) and analyze

its organ ization. They might work in teams to outline the essay and then compare

outlines. If they come up with differing orga nizational patterns, you can help

them understand why those differences have occurred: are they reading or inter–

preting the essay in dif fer ent ways? They can also see which ele ments from the

four approaches (classical, Toulmin, Rogerian, and invitational) Spriggs has used

in her argument. This activity could return the class to earlier discussions of the

Then have students do the same to their own writing. Have students look

through something they’ve written to see how—or whether— they’ve made any

ethical, logical, or emotional appeals. Have they used structures from classical, Toul-

min, Rogerian, or invitational argument? What ever they discover, have them then

think about how doing so might help their readers accept their argument.

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9 % Part IV: The Centrality of Argument [ 161 ]

Chapter 18 : Strategies for Supporting an Argument

This chapter will help students with much of the writing they do in college because

it introduces them to strategies that all authors use: analogy, cause and effect, clas-

siﬁ cation, comparison and contrast, deﬁ nition, description, example, humor, narra–

strategies often used in reviews and reports. It’s impor tant, we think, for students

to know that these strategies are multipurpose, and that they work across all the

genres they’ll typically write.

To introduce students to the usefulness of these strategies, ask them to look

over an assignment they have recently completed, note which of the strategies

they have used, and assess their effectiveness. If they ﬁ nd they have not used any

of them, ask students to consider which ones might help them make their argu-

ment. If they’re making an argument that’s somewhat abstract, would an analogy

The strategies taught in this chapter can be useful from the very beginning

of the writing pro cess, as tools for generating ideas. Since students often have dif–

ﬁ culty developing points, you could show them how these strategies can help

them elaborate on what they’re trying to say. An analogy, for example, might help

more difﬁ cult it would be to see the comparison of the fourteen cities in paragraph

form. Conversely, it might be fun to ask them to imagine how Dave Barry might have

made his comparison in photo graphs, illustrations, or some other sort of visual. The

point we like to make is that writers need to consider whether words, images, or a

combination of both will work better to say what they want to say.

This chapter provides several examples of each of the strategies in use. You

might build on them by asking students to bring in examples of each of the strate-

gies, or divide the class into groups and ask each group to provide two or three

examples of one of the strategies. In addition, ask students to bring in drafts and,

[ 162 ]

STUDENTS DO INFORMAL RESEARCH EVERY DAY in order to make decisions

and solve prob lems, but many ﬁ rst– year writers have little or no experi–

ence in conducting formal academic research. Their previous experience may

have involved topics like gun control or underage drinking— issues that are

perpetually or currently under public discussion and on which they can easily

find information. They may select a couple of sources that support their beliefs

and then one that takes the opposite position in order to acknowledge the coun-

We need to help students move beyond these initial encounters and into

more meaningful relationships with research practices. Why? Because learning to

discover, evaluate, and select appropriate material and then analyze, summarize,

and paraphrase what others have said in order to incorporate it into an original

argument will not only beneﬁ t them in all of their classes, but also result in their

Chapter 19: Starting Your Research / Joining the Conversation

Since “getting started” is the part of research proj ects that students themselves

claim to have the most difﬁ culty with, we begin with guidelines on discovering

an engaging topic and narrowing it to a manageable focus, and then walk students

through the steps of developing a reasonable research question, stating a working

ten

Part V: Research

10 % Part V: Research [ 163 ]

If you’re planning to assign a research- based paper as one of several essays,

you might want to introduce the idea early on with a general discussion of what

academic research means and why we do it. Our students need to understand that

we ask them to do research in order to develop critical-thinking skills, improve

their abilities to discover ideas and investigate the ideas of others, and master the

Choosing a topic. The major difﬁ culty will be moving students toward topics that

they must investigate in order to understand. Have students write out a list of

potentially in ter est ing topics and then discuss them in class. Encouraging students

to research a topic they’re learning about in another class can also lead to in ter est ing

topics— and help them to make connections between what they are doing in your

Establishing a schedule. Establishing ﬁ rm timelines and goals to be met will help

both you and the students manage the pro cess of information gathering, analy-

sis, interpretation, and pre sen ta tion. We provide a research schedule on pp. 453–

Task Every one’s an Author chapter

Choose a topic. Ch.19, STARTING YOUR RESEARCH (pp.446–47)

Analyze your rhetorical situation. Ch.2, RHETORICAL SITUATIONS; Ch.19, STARTING

YOUR RESEARCH (pp.447–48)

Do some preliminary research. Ch.19, STARTING YOUR RESEARCH (p.450)

Narrow your topic and decide on a

research question.

Ch.19, STARTING YOUR RESEARCH (pp.448–49,

450–52)

Plot out a working thesis. Ch.19, STARTING YOUR RESEARCH (pp.452–53)

Do library and web research. Ch.20, FINDING SOURCES (pp.455–75)

Start a working bibliography. Ch.21, KEEPING TRACK;

[ 164 ]

Task Every one’s an Author chapter

Plan and schedule any  eld research. Ch.20, FINDING SOURCES (pp.475–84)

Do any  eld research. Ch.20, FINDING SOURCES (pp.475–84)

Draft a thesis statement. Ch.7, MANAGING THE WRITING PRO CESS

(pp.85–86);

Ch.19, STARTING YOUR RESEARCH (452–53)

Write out a draft. Ch.4, MEETING THE DEMANDS OF ACADEMIC

WRITING;

Ch.7, MANAGING THE WRITING PRO CESS;

Ch.9, TAKING ADVANTAGE OF THE WRITING

CENTER;

Ch.24, SYNTHESIZING IDEAS;

Ch.25, QUOTING, PARAPHRASING, SUMMARIZING;

Ch.31, HOW TO WRITE GOOD SENTENCES;

Ch.33, DESIGNING WHAT YOU WRITE

Get response. Ch.11, ARGUING A POSITION (pp.143–45);

Ch.12, WRITING A NARRATIVE (pp.188–89);

Ch.13, WRITING ANALYTICALLY (pp.238–39);

Ch.14, REPORTING INFORMATION (pp.284–86);

Ch.15, WRITING A REVIEW (pp.329–30)

Ch.16, WRITING A PROPOSAL (pp.364–65)

Do additional research if you need to. Ch.20, FINDING SOURCES

Revise. Ch.31, HOW TO WRITE GOOD SENTENCES

Prepare your list of works cited. Ch.27, MLA STYLE; Ch.28, APA STYLE

Edit. Ch.32, CHECKING FOR COMMON MISTAKES

Write your  nal draft.

Proofread. Ch.32, CHECKING FOR COMMON MISTAKES

Turn in the  nal draft.

Chapter 20: Finding Sources /

Online, in the Library, in the Field

Research is question– driven. The researcher wants to know why, how, or what if

and begins the search for answers by ﬁ guring out the best way to look for the

information that will help get to those answers. Our opening demonstrates this

with examples from a popu lar TV show and an actual research proj ect that started

[ TEACHING WITH EVERY ONE’S AN AUTHOR ]