Chapter 18 introduces early opera, its musical and textual components, and its diffusion from
Italy to other parts of Baroque Europe. Purcell’s Dido and Aeneas serves as the centerpiece of
the chapter, offering students an opportunity to explore the emotional and expressive depth of
opera throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. To understand the basic musical and textual components of opera in the Baroque era
2. To understand the birth of opera in Italy and its subsequent diffusion abroad during the
Baroque era
3. To understand Purcell’s Dido and Aeneas as one of the earliest English operas, one that
displays the emotional depth of Baroque opera in general
LECTURE SUGGESTIONS
1. Introduce the musical components of Baroque opera by playing selections from
Monteverdi’s Orfeo (1607), a work noted for its framing of recitatives among contrasting
sections of sinfonias, arias, choruses, and ballets. Review with students the stop-time and
clock-time functions of these diverse components. Here are some representative examples:
▶ Sinfonia [overture]: opening toccata
▶ Recitative: “In questo lieto fortunato giorno,” Act I
▶ Aria: “Vi ricorda o boschi ombrosi,” Act II
▶ Chorus and ballet: “Lasciate i monti, lasciate i fonte,” Act I
2. After reviewing the definitions of aria and ground bass, play the opening instrumental
introduction of Dido’s lament and ask students—even though they know, so far, only that
this piece is a lament—if they can detect or predict any word-painting (e.g., tears, sadness =
falling, descending). Continue playing the excerpt; afterward, ask the class how this ground
bass proves an effective vehicle for the expression of Dido’s emotions. Contrast Dido’s
lament with the love duet from Act III, scene 7 of Monteverdi’s L’incoronzaione di Poppea,
a piece also based on a descending-fourth ground-bass pattern. Ask students to consider
how tonality (major-minor) serves to underline the emotional content of the characters in
these two operas.
ASSIGNMENT SUGGESTIONS
1. The final scene (“Dido’s Lament”) from Purcell’s Dido and Aeneas is one of the most
cherished moments of Baroque opera, confirmed by the many available renditions of this
ground-bass aria. Research Dido’s Lament and compare three or four performances of this
aria. Which do you find most effective and compatible with the emotions of Queen Dido at
this particular moment of the story?
2. Despite the popularity of Italian opera during the Baroque era, some critics found it
distasteful and unconvincing. One of the most famous critiques of Italian Baroque opera
came from French courtier Charles, Seigneur de Saint-Évremond, at the end of the
seventeenth century:
“Another thing in opera so contrary to nature, that I cannot be reconciled to it . . . is the
singing of the whole piece, from beginning to end, as if the persons represented were
ridiculously matched, and had agreed to treat in music both the most common, and most
important affairs of life.”
How do you respond to Saint-Évremond’s attack on opera? Do you agree or disagree?
Why or why not?
TEACHING CHALLENGES
Distinguishing aria and recitative may give some students trouble, especially in early opera,
where the distinction is sometimes difficult to detect (e.g., the arioso style). Reinforce the
difference using a later example from Handel or Mozart, where the specific sound of recitative is
much more recognizable.
SUPPLEMENTAL REPERTORY
Caccini and Peri: L’Euridice
Cavalli: Giasone
Lully: Armide
John Gay (with Johann Christoph Pepusch): The Beggar’s Opera
SUPPLEMENTAL BIBLIOGRAPHY
Carter, Tim. Monteverdi’s Musical Theatre. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2002. An
in–depth survey of Monteverdi’s dramatic works from Orfeo to L’incoronazione di Poppea.
Fanelli, Jean Grundy. Opera for Everyone: A Historical, Social, Artistic, Literary, and Musical
Study. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2003. A concise, approachable, and dependable
account of the history of opera from the perspectives listed in the title. Chapters 1–8 (pp. 1–
86) treat Baroque opera.
Harris, Ellen T. Henry Purcell’s Dido and Aeneas. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994.
An entire monograph dedicated to Purcell’s Dido and Aeneas. Harris explores the literary
traditions of the libretto, musical sources, critical reception, and performance history. Harris
treats the issue of declamation and the ground-bass aria in some detail.
CHAPTER OUTLINE
Performing Grief: Purcell and Early Opera (Chapter 18)
I. The Components of Opera
A. Opera: most important new genre of the Baroque era
1. large-scale sung drama
2. vocal and instrumental music, poetry and drama, acting and pantomime, scenery and
costumes
3. strong emotions through music, “hyper–reality”
B. Principal components:
1. recitative: declamatory vocal style
a. imitates, emphasizes natural inflections of speech
b. moves plot and action of opera forward
2. aria: lyrical song
a. highly emotional
b. action is frozen, release of tension in the action
c. often sung out of opera context
3. ensemble: duets, trios, quartets
a. chorus: backs up solo voice, comments on action
4. orchestra: sets mood
a. overture: orchestral introduction
b. sinfonias: interludes between scenes
5. libretto: text or script of the opera
a. earliest librettos: mythology, epic poetry, ancient history
II. Early Opera in Italy
A. Outgrowth of Renaissance theatrical traditions
1. royal weddings, ceremonial occasions
2. lavish spectacles, scenic displays
B. Spread of opera
1. Claudio Monteverdi: early Italian opera composer
a. Orfeo (1607), The Coronation of Poppea (1642)
2. from palace to public, widespread entertainment
3. first public opera house, Venice
4. accompanying orchestra: standard in Italian opera
5. popular in Western Europe (except France; ballet traditions, classical tragedy)
III. Opera in England
A. Masque: stage plays
1. vocal and instrumental music with poetry and dance
2. popular among aristocracy
3. Commonwealth (1649–1660): stage plays forbidden by Puritans
a. plays set to music presented as “concerts”
B. Henry Purcell (1659–1695)
1. English court musician: composer, organist and singer
2. style: assimilated Italian, French and English styles
3. output: masques and operas, sacred and secular vocal music, instrumental music
C. Dido and Aeneas
1. presented in girls’ school in London
2. based on ancient Roman epic, Virgil’s Aeneid
3. Dido’s Lament: powerful model for female grief
4. main characters:
a. Aeneas: adventuring hero
b. Dido: queen of Carthage
c. Belinda: Dido’s serving maid
5. plot summary:
a. Aeneas is shipwrecked at Carthage
b. Aeneas and Dido fall in love
c. gods command Aeneas to found Rome
d. grief-stricken, Dido takes her own life
e. flames from funeral pyre light way for Aeneas
D. Listening Guide 7: Purcell, Dido and Aeneas, Act III, Opening and Lament (1689)
1. recitative: “Thy hand, Belinda,” sung by Dido
a. Dido decides her fate
b. accompanied by basso continuo only
2. aria: “When I am laid in earth”
a. lyrical aria in two sections (A-A-B-B)
b. slow triple meter
c. sung over eleven statements of ground bass
i. descending bass line: symbolic of grief in Baroque music