Chapter 6 Supporting Materials and Contextual Reasoning
Chapter Objectives
List the five types of speech support, and define them.
Detail the two basic questions one should ask about statistics.
Define contextual reasoning.
Lecture Outline
I. Chapter opener
A. It is essential to think about setting and audience when considering what you will use as
supporting material, which is any facts, statistics, testimony, examples, and stories that bolster
your claims.
II. Types of Speech Support
A. Learning objectives
1. List the five types of speech support, and define them.
2. Detail the two basic questions one should ask about statistics.
B. The box “Three Questions of Speech Support” outlines three questions to ask yourself
when determining the context of your speech. They include:
1. What kind of speech is called for?
2. What is the setting and mood of the speech?
3. Who is the audience of the speech?
C. Facts
1. Facts are verifiable truths, or information that is independent of opinion.
Examples include the height of a building or who won a particular award in a given year.
2. Facts are often contrasted with opinions and beliefs, which are judgments based
on facts.
3. Although similar to beliefs, facts are the only kind of belief that can be verified
with empirical data. They are generally regarded as the most basic and reliable type of
speech support.
D. Statistics
1. Statistics refer to numerical facts or measurements about a large group or
collection.
2. They are widely used as a form of factual support because they deliver facts
speedily.
3. Statistics are an important part of our culture, our financial well-being, and our
educational system. They are essential to numerous fields of study.
4. Although statistics can be an exceptionally powerful tool, you should determine
the fairness and appropriateness of statistics prior to using them in a speech. This can be
achieved by asking two guiding questions:
a) What do the statistics measure? When you discover a statistic to use in a
speech, the source will typically identify how the number was determined, and
this will tell you what the statistic is measuring.
b)
What or who is the source of the statistics? Asking this question helps to
identify any potential bias. See the box “Is Bias Always Bad or Avoidable?” for
more information.
5. When choosing statistics, it is important that the speaker avoid cherry-picking, or
choosing only data that supports his or her point and ignoring data that may be contrary
to his or her point.
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6. Using visual aids can be especially helpful when sharing complex statistics or
when the speaker would like to display trends or relationships between numbers.
E. Testimony
1. Opinions, or judgments that may or may not depend on facts or knowledge, may
be views someone adopts after careful consideration, or they may be simply educated
guesses. They may be shared as speech support when the person giving the opinion is
considered an expert on a particular topic.
2. In public speaking, testimony typically refers to the sharing of an individual’s
viewpoints, perspectives, or opinions, and is used as a form of support or evidence. There
are four basic types of testimony:
a)
Expert testimony: Testimony from someone considered to be widely
acknowledged as an authority in a particular field or profession. This can add
credibility to a speech.
b)
Lay testimony: Testimony from the experience of an everyday person.
This may be helpful in situations that call for common or unique perspectives
from a non-expert.
c) Personal experience: When the speaker draws on their own experience
to share beliefs about those experiences. This should be used sparingly and
usually is only used when the occasion calls for it (such as a wedding toast),
when you are speaking as an expert, or when mentioning a personal connection
to the speech topic as a means to create interest with the audience.
d)
Declaration of faith: When a speaker communicates personal experience
that also professes glories of a deity or spiritual inspiration. One of the most
famous examples is Martin Luther King Jr.’s “I Have a Dream” speech.
F. Examples
1. An example is a descriptive representation used to illustrate a claim.
2. Examples are used to clarify claims.
3. Aristotle argued that public speaking fundamentally concerned use of informal
logic and the use of examples.
4. Examples create mental images and typically refer to factual events or concrete
things.
5. Hypothetical examples invite listeners to participate in the speech by painting
mental pictures of a scenario or event.
G. Stories or Narratives
1. Stories are essentially extended examples with a familiar pattern that includes a
beginning, a middle, and an end.
2. The philosopher Alasdair MacIntyre has argued that stories are powerful because
they comprise the basis of how we see ourselves and our shared lives together. Stories
give meaning to the sequence of events in our lives.
3. Stories may be personal or describe events that happened to someone else. They
may also be short anecdotes or longer narratives.
H. Orally Referencing Your Sources
1. It is important to remember that the audience will not have a full bibliography of
all the sources used in a particular speech, which makes it essential that the speaker orally
cite each source.
2. There is no right or wrong way to refer to sources in a speech, and how sources
are cited depends on the speaking context.
3. Enough information should be provided so that listeners can find sources if they
desire. Information should include:
a)
Author (with credentials if appropriate)
b)
Type of source (book, article, interview, speech)
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Supporting material: the facts, statistics, testimony, examples, and stories that bolster your claims.
Facts: verifiable truths or information that is independent of opinion.
Statistics: numerical facts or measurements about a large group or collection.
Bias: a preference for something—including beliefs, id eas, and values—that benefits you or others
unequally.
Opinions: judgments that may or may not depend on facts or knowledge.
Testimony: the sharing of an individual’s viewpoints, perspectives, or opinions.
Examples: descriptive representations used to illustrate claims.
Stories: extended examples that follow a familiar pattern that includes a beginning, a middle, and an end.
Contextual reasoning: thinking about the kinds of support you can use for a sp eech given its contextual
demands and constraints.
c) Title or description of source
d) Date of source
4. For a strong example of oral citation, it is helpful to listen to radio journalists.
III. Contextual Reasoning
A. Learning objective
1. Define contextual reasoning.
B. Contextual reasoning concerns thinking about the kinds of support you can use for a
speech given the contextual demands and constraints of the speech situation.
C. “Informal logic,” also called “common sense,” is used by most speakers to determine the
logical order of arguments and whether claims made are supported by evidence.
D. Choosing speech materials based on the context of the speech is a form of reasoning that
requires determining the mood and feeling of a speaking situation.
E. Contextual reasoning considers the occasion for speaking, the audience to which you will
speak, and the type of speech you are giving.
Key Terms
Chapter Summary
Chapter 6: Supporti ng Materials and Contextual R easoning explains why it is necessary to deter mine
what types of supporting material from that research to use. It also discusses how to order your arguments
based on the type of speech you are delivering and the context of the speech.
Next, the chapter introduces ty pes of speech sup port material, including facts, st atistics, testi mony,
examples, and stories or narratives. The im portance of using the right types of supporting material and
citing sources orally is emphasized.
Finally, this chapter discusses how contextual reasoni ng is used to determ ine which types of supporting
material would be m ost suited for a parti cular type of speech. One should think about the kind of speech
he or she is giving, the mood or setting of the speech, and the audience for the speech.
Discussion Questions
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1. Can you use fake examples in your speeches without damaging your credibility? Defend your answer
with ideas from the chapter and examples.
2. You volunteer for a specific charity because it helped someone close to you, maybe a sibling or parent.
You’re preparing a speech for a fundraiser and you want to talk about why you are passionate about the
organization. What is the best way to include your personal experience? Defend your answer using terms
or reasons from the chapter and provide examples.
3. The chapter asks whether bias is always bad or unavoidable when using supporting material. What do
you think? Defend your answer with ideas from the chapter and examples.
4. A speaker wants to convince an audience to do something out of their comfort zone or that violates
social norms (for example, join a protest march or the military). Which kind of supporting material would
be most effective: expert testimony, lay testimony, personal experience, or declarations of faith? Explain
your answer using ideas from the chapter and give examples to illustrate.
5. A speaker wants to use a narrative or story that is true but somewhat unbelievable and might raise
questions about credibility. What should the speaker do? Explain your answer using ideas from the
chapter and give examples to illustrate.
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Activities
1. Concept mapping
Students can differentiate among the types of supporting material and their characteristics through
concept mapping. This activity allows them to see the relationships among the different types of
supporting material and learn how to visualize the supporting material in context. It also promotes
metacognition.
Students can work on concepts maps individually or in groups.
Start students with the center circle and the five surrounding circles, types of supporting material (facts,
statistics, testimony, examples, stories). Guide students as they fill out and expand their maps.
Students can use their maps as reference points in future conversations.
2. Evaluate a student speech.
In this activity, students evaluate an example student speech by applying the guidelines for supporting
material in Chapter 6. Make sure that students can generally identify evaluative criteria for the five types
of supporting material before the activity.
This activity can be structured any number of ways, but here are two useful configurations depending on
class size, chemistry, and the speech:
A) If the speech is dense and has a variety of supporting material, break the class into groups or two sides
and divide the types of supporting material. Assign types to groups or to the left and right sides of the
room. Limit students from crossing sides or groups until everyone has had a fair chance to answer their
assigned question.
B) Debrief as a whole class. If two sides of the room were used, have students pair up across sides and
share. Then share as a whole class. This cuts down on whole class debriefing time.
Sources for student speeches:
LaunchPad for Speech Craft
Search “Intro to Public Speaking: Example of a Great Informative Speech on Netflix”
Search “Belmont University Speech Lab YouTube Channel”
Question Prompt:
Evaluate how well the speaker uses supporting material in this informative speech. Defend your
answer by using terms from the chapter and illustrate with examples from the speech. Support
your claims using contextual reasoning, citing sources, and the discussing the quality of
supporting material.
3. Analyze a video—Statistics: Hans Rosling TEDTalk
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In this activity students evaluate supporting material with a focus on statistics. Many formats can be used
with this activity.
Search “ted talk the magic washing machine.”
Question Prompt:
Points of discussion about statistics for the debriefing:
connect to class concepts.
4. Analyze a video—Narrative: Shaka Senghor TEDTalk
In this activity students evaluate supporting material with a focus on personal experience, narrative, and
declarations of faith. Because different types of supporting material can blend into each other during a
narrative speech, this activity will help students make distinctions. Many formats can be used with this
activity. Depending on the audience, the speech provokes strong responses. Instructors who give trigger
warnings may want to let students know about the contents ahead of time.
Search “ted talk why your worst deeds don’t define you.”
Question Prompt:
Points of discussion about supporting material for the debriefing:
A) Students will focus on the emotional quality of the speech and the morality of the atonement project.
Through facilitation, guide students to the supporting material with questions about how the speaker
justified his position and whether he made his case.
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5. Construct > Rehearse > Deliver a statistic and oral citation.
(Also used in Chapter 2)
This activity helps students deliver oral citations, master integrating statistics into their speeches, and
develop the capacity to speak as a listener. Have students select a complex statistic, preferably one that
they will use in their upcoming speech. Depending on course sequence, combine this activity with
slideware depicting the statistic.
Oral References Worksheet
Directions:
Step 1: Choose a complex statistic to support a point you will make in your next speech. Paste the
information into a document and add the source in proper bibliographic format.
Step 2: Describe who the author or source is, their relevance, and their credibility.
Step 3: Explain what the statistic means and how it supports your point.
Teaching Tips
1. “Hands up, pair up” is a quick way to pair students for think-pair-shares or other activities. Just have
students hold their hands in the air until they find a partner, high five when they connect, and then sit
3. New instructors may have heard the “count to five” rule about asking questions. This rule is validated
by research: search “two writing teachers importance of wait time and think time.” Additionally, some
4. Teaching information literacy is increasingly complex. Course sequencing and scaffolding can help
significantly. For example, unlike many other components of a speech, statistics can create cognitive
Content Presentation Ideas
1. Evaluating and Presenting a Magazine Article
This assignment teaches students how to analyzing supporting material. It consists of two parts.
Assignment Instructions
This assignment consists of two parts.
Part 1: Choose an article from either the Economist or Time magazine. Analyze its use of supporting
material, including facts, statistics, opinion, bias, examples, testimony, and stories or anecdotes. You
should have a thorough knowledge of the article from reading it (possibly more than once). Print the
article and highlight and label different types of supporting material you find.
2. Presenting Personal Stories
This assignment provides practice in the art of storytelling. The goal is to help students feel more
comfortable using this approach in later speeches.
Provide the students with a common theme to use for this activity.
3. Detecting Bias
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