978-0205930661 Chapter 14

Instructor’s Manual and Test Bank for Essentials of Human Communication, Eighth Edition

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CHAPTER 14: T

HE

P

ERSUASIVE

S

PEECH

CONCEPTS OF THIS CHAPTER

· goals of persuasion

· guidelines for persuasive speaking

· supporting materials

· three types of persuasive speeches

KNOWLEDGE OBJECTIVES

After completing this chapter, students should be able to:

·

understand the process of persuasion and how attitudes, beliefs, values, and behaviors are

influenced

· understand the techniques that persuaders use to influence others

SKILLS OBJECTIVES

After completing this chapter, students should:

·

use the techniques and strategies of persuasion in a wide variety of situations

· prepare persuasive speeches on questions of fact, value, and policy

· prevent themselves from being unfairly or unethically influenced

INSTRUCTIONAL OUTLINE

I.

Goals of Persuasion

– Your persuasive speech should move your audience towards your topic in

one of three ways:

· Strengthen or weaken attitudes, beliefs, and values

· Change attitudes, beliefs, and values

· Motivate your audience to take action

II.

Guidelines for Persuasive Speaking

– Your success in strengthening or changing attitudes or

beliefs or in moving

your listeners to action will depend on your effective use of these guidelines:

·

Focus on your Audience

–

Begin constructing your persuasive speech with knowledge about

your specific audience. If you show your audience that you share with them important

attitudes, beliefs, and values, you will clearly advance your persuasive goal.

·

Ask for Reasonable Amounts of Change

– Persuasion is more effective when it strives for

small changes and works over a period of time; in classroom speeches it is best to set

reasonable goals for what a speaker wants an audience to value, believe, or do; one can’t

“move a mountain” in the few minutes allotted for each classroom speech.

·

Anticipate Selective Exposure

– listeners actively seek information that supports their

opinions, beliefs, values, decisions, and behaviors; they actively avoid information that

contradicts their existing opinions, beliefs, attitudes, values and behaviors. The implications

of

this principles for persuasive speaking include:

•

if your audience does not agree with your thesis, hold back stating it early

•

if your audience agrees with your thesis, state it early

· Adapt to the Culture of Your Audience

•

In collectivist cultures, stress family, loyalty, and national pride. In individualistic

cultures, stress independence, nonconformity, and uniqueness.

•

In high-power-distance cultures, reference important and influential people. In low-

power-distance cultures, include testimonials from people similar to your audience.

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•

In cultures high in uncertainty avoidance, present information from experts where

everyone can go for guidance. In cultures low in uncertainty avoidance, appeals to the

new and unknown will be effective.

•

In cultures that teach a long-term orientation, appeal to delayed rewards. In cultures that

seem short-term oriented, stress immediate rewards.

· Follow a Motivated Sequence

o

Attention

o

Need

o

Satisfaction

o

Visualization

o

Action

III.

Supporting Materials

– In addition to the supporting materials described in Chapter 12, three

forms of support are especially important to persuasion: logical, emotional, and credibility

appeals.

·

Logical Appeals –

Arguing on the basis of logic supported by reliable facts and evidence

is an

important way to engender true commitment in your audience.

•

Reasoning from Specific Instances to Generalizations

– examining specific items

and making a conclusion about the class to which the items belong; useful when you

want

to develop a general principle; two general guidelines help determine if you

have

examined enough specific instances:

–

the larger the group you wish to cover with your conclusion, the greater the

number of specific instances you should examine

–

the greater the differences among the people or items in the group you want to

draw conclusion about, the more specific instances you will need to examine

– beware of anecdotal evidence

•

Reasoning from Causes and Effects

– drawing the conclusion that a specific cause

is producing a specific effect or reasoning that a specific effect was produced by a

specific cause; when critically analyzing reasoning of this type, consider:

– Might other causes be producing the observed effect?

– Is the causation in the predicted direction?

–

Is there evidence for a causal rather than merely a time-sequence relationship?

•

Reasoning from Sign

– drawing a conclusion on the basis of the presence of clues or

symptoms that frequently occur together; if a sign and a condition are paired, the

sign’s presence is taken as proof of the condition; when critically analyzing reasoning

of this type, consider:

– Do the signs necessitate the conclusion?

– Do other signs point to the same conclusion?

– Are there contradictory signs?

·

Emotional Appeals

– often called motivational appeals; appeals to human needs, desires,

and wants; perhaps the most powerful means of persuasion a speaker can use; one way of

organizing human wants and desires is Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, which posits five

levels of human desires:

•

Physiological Needs

– needs for food, water, and air; not a powerful motivational

factor if these need have been met; very powerful if they have not

•

Safety Needs

– needs for basic safety and freedom from fear; appealing to people’s

needs for security, protection, and freedom from physical harm and psychological

distress; used in advertisements for burglar protection; political speeches promising

greater police protection; the appeals of motivational speakers promising freedom

from anxiety or psychological distress (these are often termed fear appeals

)

; may be

viewed and used as desire for order, since order and structure make things more

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predictable and, therefore, safe (e.g., used in ads for closet organizers, data

management systems, etc.)

•

Belonging and Love Needs

– need for affection and affiliation; need to be connected

to others or part of a group

•

Self-Esteem Needs

– need for a positive self-image; to see ourselves in the best

possible light; can take various forms (e.g., need to see ourselves as self–confident;

need for the approval of others; need for power, control, and influence over people,

events, or the environment; need to succeed, to achieve; need for financial gain)

•

Self-Actualization Needs –

need to achieve excellence in vocation and occupation

·

Credibility Appeals

– how believable you are as a speaker apart from the evidence you

present and the arguments you make; credibility will vary from one culture to another;

three general qualities of credibility include:

•

Competence

– the knowledge and expertise the audience thinks the speaker has;

methods to demonstrate competence include:

– telling the audience of your special experience or training

– citing a variety of research sources

– stressing the particular competencies of your sources

–

Character

– the speaker’s honesty and basic nature; methods to demonstrate

character include:

– stressing your fairness

– stressing your concern for enduring values

– stressing your similarity with the audience

•

Charisma

–

the speaker’s dynamism,

assertiveness, forcefulness, passion

;

methods to

demonstrate charisma include:

– demonstrating a positive attitude toward the entire speech encounter

–

demonstrating assertiveness; show you are a person that will stand up for your

rights and the rights of others

– being enthusiastic

IV. Three Types of Persuasive Speeches

·

Persuasive Speeches on Questions of Fact

– Questions of fact concern what is or is not true,

what does or does not exist, what did or did not happen; questions of fact that may be subjects of

persuasive speeches concern controversial issues for which different people have different

answers (e.g., Does capital punishment deter crime? Do comprehensive sex education

programs reduce teen pregnancy?).

•

Thesis and Main Points

– The thesis statement should be a statement of fact, such as

“Capital punishment deters crime.” Whether or not capital punishment does deter crime

is a question of fact the persuader has to prove. Main points are generated by asking the

questions, “How do you know this?” or “Why would someone believe this is true?”

•

Support

– Logical appeals should be emphasized in speeches on questions of fact;

evidence should recent and relevant (e.g., the more credible recent evidence the speaker

can provide that comprehensive sex education programs do reduce teen pregnancy, the

more inclined the audience will be to accept the claim).

•

Organization

– Speeches on questions of fact fit most clearly into a topical

organizational pattern.

·

Persuasive Speeches on Questions of Value

– Questions of value concern what people

consider good or bad, moral or immoral, just or unjust (e.g., “Would consolidating smaller

school districts benefit students in rural areas? Would abolishing the electoral college

improve the democratic process?); speeches on questions of values generally seek to

strengthen audiences’ existing attitudes, beliefs, or values; in constructing speeches on

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questions of values the speaker should clearly define the specific value on which they are

focusing (e.g., concerning the question of the benefit of school consolidation, the speaker

might want to focus on the value of diversity or the value of more class choices).

•

Thesis and Main Points

– The thesis statement for questions of value should clearly

make a value statement (e.g., “Consolidating smaller school districts in rural areas is the

right thing to do.”); main points are generated by asking questions such as “Why is this

the

right (or wrong or just or unjust) thing to do?”

•

Support

– Evidence should recent and relevant; it may be useful to identity the standards

used to judge something as just/unjust, moral/immoral, right/wrong.

•

Organization

– Like speeches on questions of fact, speeches on questions of value lend

themselves to topical organization; however the speaker might also do well to move from

areas of least disagreement to areas on which the audience may not agree to ensure an

initial favorable response.

·

Persuasive Speeches on Questions of Policy

– Questions of policy move beyond questions

of fact and value to urge an audience to do something because of some injustice or

misconception. Questions of policy concern what should be done, what procedures should be

adopted, what laws should be changed; in short, what policy should be followed. Examples

include “What policies should govern hate speech on campus?” “What should be done to

improve the quality of education in rural areas?” and “Who should students vote for student

government president?”

•

Thesis and Main Points

– The thesis statement for questions of value should clearly

make policy claim or statement (e.g., “The minimum legal drinking age should be

lowered to 18” “This university should raise its admission standards” or “The electoral

college should be abolished”). Questions of policy invariably involve questions of value,

for

by stating a certain policy should be adopted the speaker is arguing that policy is

better

than others or that certain policies are “right” while others are “wrong.” Speakers

develop

speeches on questions of policy by asking strategic questions about their thesis:

“Why

should the policy be adopted?” “What is wrong with the current policy?” “What

will be the

outcome of adopting a new policy?”

•

Support

– Evidence should be aimed at convincing the audience that the policy being

promoted is indeed beneficial to them specifically and to society in general. If the

speaker’s aim is to get the audience to do something (e.g., vote, sign a petition, attend a

rally), strong motivational appeals as well as strong logical appeals should be used.

•

Organization

– Speeches on questions of policy lend themselves to problem-solution,

comparison-contrast, cause-to-effect organizational patterns as well as the motivated

sequence.

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1.

Define attitudes, beliefs, values, and behaviors. Explain how they relate to the process of

persuasion.

Attitudes are tendencies to respond to something in a certain way. People generally have positive,

negative, or neutral attitudes toward people, places, events, and policies. Beliefs are convictions in

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2.

What is selective exposure? Explain how one would use this concept in a persuasive speech.

3.

What are some general guidelines for developing an effective persuasive speech?

4.

What are three specific types of logical appeals? Give examples of each.

5.

What are the levels of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs? Give examples of how you might use each

level in trying to sell someone a new vacuum cleaner.

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs includes five levels. The first level is the physiological level, the

need for food, water, and air; although most people in the U.S. have these needs met, you might

6.

How can the following aspects of credibility appeals be demonstrated in a speech: competence,

character, and charisma?

7.

Differentiate among three types of persuasive speeches, giving a thesis statement suitable for

each.

Persuasive speeches may center on questions of fact, value, or policy. Speeches concerned with

questions of fact seek to convince an audience that something is true or untrue, exists or does not

Instructor’s Manual and Test Bank for Essentials of Human Communication, Eighth Edition

ACTIVITIES FOR SKILL DEVELOPMENT

14.1 Constructing Proofs

Guidelines:

Assign one of the statements listed below or others you or the class generate to each student. Have

each student individually construct a logical, emotional, and ethical appeal. This may be assigned

as

out–of-class work. After students have completed this individual work, group them based on the

statement they worked on. All students in a group should have worked on the same statement. Have them

share their proofs with each other and modify, change, combine their proofs. Ask each group to

report its

proofs to the rest of the class and lead a discussion on combining appeals in persuasive

presentations

for maximum effectiveness.

Statements for Constructing Proofs

· Marijuana should (not) be legalized.

·

Immigration from Mexico and Latin America should be expanded (restricted).

·

Retirement should (not) be mandatory at age 65 for all government employees.

· The death penalty should (not) be abolished.

·

Too much (too little) money is spent on accommodating people with handicaps.

·

Some type of national service (community or military) should (not) be mandatory for people

between the ages of 18 and 25.

· Affirmative action is (not) morally warranted.

14.2 Preparing a Two-Minute Speech

Have students prepare a two-minute speech on one of the following topics. This can be assigned as an

out–of-class assignment or can be assigned as an impromptu speech, having students choose a topic at the

beginning of the class period.

· Persuade your listeners to take a particular course.

· Persuade your listeners to read an online article.

· Persuade your listeners to see a particular movie.

· Persuade your listeners to download a particular app.

·

Persuade your listeners to contact someone with whom they have lost touch.

14.3 Analyzing a Persuasive Speech

Guidelines

: Have students first individually evaluate the “An Excellent Persuasive Speech” on text pp.

302-304. This may be assigned as out-of-class work. Have students discuss their evaluations of the

speech in groups of five or six. Lead the whole class in a critique of the speech. This offers an excellent

opportunity to discuss the subjectivity of speech evaluations and what specifically you as an instructor

expect from student’s persuasive speeches.

14.4 Constructing Motivational Appeals

Description

: The exercise is designed to help student understand how motivational appeals may be used

in different ways for various audiences. Divide the class into groups and randomly assign both a topic

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and an audience (both listed below) to each. Alternately, assign each group the same topic, but different

audiences. Instruct them to develop emotional appeals based on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs that would

be

appropriate for the topic and audience they are assigned.

Purposes Audiences

A) Marijuana should be legalized.

B) Cigarette smoking should be banned in all

public places.

C) Capital punishment should be abolished.

D) Social Security benefits should be increased by

at least one third.

E) Police personnel should be allowed to strike. F)

A national health plan should be instituted.

G) Domestic partners should be accorded the same

rights and benefits as married couples in all

states.

H) Teachers should be paid based on teaching

performance, not seniority and publications. I)

Divorce should not be granted immediately

when people request it.

J) Retirement at age 65 should be mandatory for

all government employees.

· Senior citizens of Metropolis

· Small Business Operators Club

· American Society of Young Dentists

· Veterans of Vietnam

· Los Angeles Society of Interior

Designers

· Society for the Rehabilitation of Ex–

Offenders

· Catholic Women’s Council

· National Council of African American

Artists

· Parent-Teacher Association

· Midwestern Council of Physical

Education Instructors

Guidelines

: After students have constructed their emotional appeals, have them share with the rest of the

class. Lead the class in a discussion that addresses these questions: 1) Why did you assume that these

appeals would prove effective with the topic and audience? 2) Might some of the appeals backfire and

stimulate resentment in the audience? What precautions might the speaker take to prevent such

resentment from developing? 3) What are the ethical implications of using the emotional appeals you

selected?

14.5 Let’s Apply the Concepts

Description

: Either alone or in groups, students should consider their responses to one or more of the

following scenarios. Relate their responses to the concepts indicated in the brackets.

·

You’re supervising a work force of 20 people. Your problem is that computer parts are being

stolen by one or more of the workers and you’ve been assigned the task of stopping it. You

decide to tackle this in your weekly meeting with the workers. What do you say? [Changing

Behavior]

·

You want to give a speech urging your listeners to vote in favor of establishing a hate speech

code at the college. You want to use both logical and emotional appeals. What do you say?

[Persuasive Appeals]

·

You’re planning a speech on baseball. The problem is that you’re a woman and the audience is

not going to perceive you as more credible, despite your knowing more about baseball than any

other person in the room. What do you say? [Establishing Credibility]

·

You need a brief introduction (about one minute in length or about 150 words) about yourself for

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someone else to use to introduce you and your next speech. You want to use this introduction to

establish your competence, character, and charisma. What do you say? [Introducing Credibility]

AVAILABLE ASSETS ON MYCOMMUNICATIONLAB

“Persuasion”

“Courting Responsibility”

“Interstate Commerce Commission”

“Evaluating the Adequacy of Reasoning”

“Tree Hugger”

“Planning for Success”

“The Special Olympics”

“Comparative Credibility Judgments”

“The Persuasive Speech on Questions of Fact, Value, and Policy”

“Same–Sex Marriage”

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