Instructor’s Manual and Test Bank for Essentials of Human Communication, Eighth Edition
Unit Planner
CHAPTER 12: PUBLIC SPEAKING PREPARATION AND DELIVERY
(STEPS 7-10)
CONCEPTS OF THIS CHAPTER
· step 7: word your speech
·
step 8: construct your conclusion, introduction, transitions, and outlines
· step 9: rehearse your speech
· step 10: deliver your speech
· critically evaluating speeches
KNOWLEDGE OBJECTIVES
After completing this chapter, students should be able to:
· understand the importance of language in effective public speaking
·
understand the importance of rehearsal and delivery in effective public speaking
·
understand the importance of speech criticism in improving public speaking
· explain the guidelines for effective voice use
·
explain the guidelines for eye contact, facial expression, posture, gestures, and movement
· explain the guidelines for expressing critical evaluations
SKILLS OBJECTIVES
After completing this chapter, students should:
· use language to best achieve their purposes
· construct effective introductions and conclusions
· rehearse their speeches effectively and efficiently
· deliver their speeches with effective voice and body action
· critically analyze a speech and express that criticism constructively
INSTRUCTIONAL OUTLINE
I.
Step 7: Word Your Speech
– Audiences do not have the luxury of looking up unfamiliar words
or rereading portions of oral presentations; therefore they must be instantly intelligible.
Differences between written language and spoken language include:
–
Spoken language generally consists of shorter, simpler, and more familiar words.
· Clarity – guidelines to help make your speech clear include:
o
be economical:
don’t waste words
o
use specific terms and numbers:
more specific = better picture for audience
o
use short, familiar terms:
use common terms
o
carefully assess idioms:
idioms are expressions unique to a specific language that may
not translate literally, such as “kick the bucket” to mean “died”; consider whether any of
your audience members will not understand your use of idioms
o
vary the levels of abstraction:
combine high abstraction and low abstraction; one
pattern that is generally effective entails beginning each points with a relatively general
or abstract statement, offering more specific information, and then summarize the point
by
combining the general and the specific
·
Vividness –
use words that come alive in listeners’ minds
o
use active verbs:
avoid overuse of the verb “to be”
o
use figures of speech:
figures of speech are stylistic devices in which words are used
beyond their literal meaning; see Table 12.1 for useful figures of speech:
alliteration: repetition of same initial consonant sound in two or more consecutive
Instructor’s Manual and Test Bank for Essentials of Human Communication, Eighth Edition
words – “big brown bear”
hyperbole: extreme exaggeration – “He’s as big as a house.”
metaphor: comparison of two unlike things – “She’s a pillar of strength.”
personification: attributing human characteristics to inanimate objects – “The
meadow was weary and ready for winter games.”
simile: comparison of two unlike things, using “like” or “as” – “He’s as weak as a
kitten.”
rhetorical question: a question used to make a statement or have an effect rather than
to secure an answer – “Do you want to be healthy?”
o
use imagery:
appeal to the audience’s senses
visual imagery: description of visual qualities – height, color, shape
auditory imagery: description of sounds – e.g., cars screeching, horn blowing
tactile imagery: description of temperatures and textures
·
Appropriateness
– Language should be appropriate to your topic, audience, and self-image;
consider these guidelines:
o
speak at the appropriate level of formality
o
avoid written-style expressions
o
avoid slang, vulgar, and offensive expressions
·
Personal Style
– Audiences favor speakers who speak with them rather than at them:
o
use personal pronouns
o
direct questions to the audience
o
create immediacy
by using “you” and building commonalities
·
Power
– public speaking often requires a powerful style that exemplifies certainty,
definitiveness, and persuasiveness. To avoid seeming powerless, speaker should avoid the
following:
o
hesitations (e.g., “I, er, ah, want to say, uh”) that make the speaker sound unprepared and
uncertain
o
too many intensifiers (e.g., “this is very, very, very good”) which weaken rather than
strengthen what the speaker wants to emphasize
o
disqualifiers (e.g., “ I really don’t know much about this topic”) which signal lack of
competence and uncertainty
o
self-critical statements (e.g., “I’m a terrible public speaker”) which signal lack of
confidence
o
slang and vulgar language (e.g., “Whassup, Dawg! X@#%&”) which signal low social
class and therefore lack of power
· Sentence Construction – guidelines for constructing sentences include:
o
use short rather than long sentences
– they are more forceful
o
use direct rather than indirect sentences
– they are easier to understand
o
use active rather than passive sentences
– they are easier to understand
o
use positive rather than negative sentences
– they are easier to remember
o
vary the type and length of sentences
– too much of the same can be boring
II.
Step 8: Construct Your Conclusion, Introduction, Transitions, and Outlines
– Your
conclusion and introduction need special care; they will determine, in part, the overall
effectiveness of your speech. Construct your conclusion and then your introduction.
· The Conclusion has two functions: summary and closure.
o
Summarize
restate your thesis
restate the importance of your thesis
restate your main points
o
Close
– give your presentation a crisp and definite end; ways to close include:
summarize with a quotation (that summarizes your thesis)
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pose a challenge or question
thank the audience
motivate your audience to do something
·
The Introduction
has two goals: gain the audience’s attention and orient the audience to the
topic.
o
Gain Attention
in the introduction and try to maintain it throughout the presentation;
ways to gain attention include:
ask a question
refer to specific audience members
refer the specific context
use illustrations or dramatic or humorous stories
o
Orient the Audience
give the audience a general idea of your subject
identify the goal you hope to achieve
· Avoiding Some Common Mistakes
o
engage listeners before speaking
o
demonstrate enthusiasm and a desire to speak
o
don’t apologize
o
begin with a strong introduction
o
reinforce what you have already said in your conclusion (no new material)
o
after your last point, pause, maintain eye contact, and then walk (don’t run) to your seat
·
Transitions
and Internal Summaries
– words, phrases, or sentences that connect various
parts of your speech; use transitions in at least the following places:
o
between the introduction and the body of the speech
o
between the body and the conclusion
o
between the main points in the body of the speech
Major transitional functions and stylistic devices:
– to announce the start of a major point
– to signal that you are drawing a conclusion
– to signal a qualification or exception
– to signal a connection with another issue
– to signal the next part of your speech
Use internal summaries to review major subdivisions of your speech—statements
that summarize what you have already discussed.
·
Outlines:
After you have constructed your conclusion and introduction, you need to put your
speech together in the form of an outline.
o
The Preparation Outline
– a detailed outline including all sources and a reference list;
ensures careful preparation
o
The Template Outline
– a template for structuring a speech; similar to PowerPoint™;
ensures all the relevant information is included in reasonable order
o
The Delivery Outline
– assists in presenting your extemporaneous speech
Be brief: use key words so as not to be tempted to read
Be delivery-minded: make notes to pause, to emphasize, etc.
Rehearse your speech with this outline.
III. Step 9: Rehearse Your Speech
· Methods of Delivery
o
impromptu method
– speaking without any specific preparation; can’t be avoided on
some occasions. You can greatly improve your impromptu speaking by cultivating good
public speaking in general.
o
manuscript method
– writing out a speech word for word and then reading or
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memorizing it; results in an unnatural presentation and allows no chance to adapt to
audience feedback
o
extemporaneous method
– thoroughly preparing; speaking from a brief outline;
knowing the general organization of the presentation but not being overly committed to
exact wording; allows for greatest flexibility in adjusting to audience feedback; major
disadvantage is stumbling or groping for words; to overcome this disadvantage consider:
memorizing opening and closing lines
memorizing main points and the order in which you will present them
·
Effective Rehearsing
– allows you to time the speech, see how it flows, and make necessary
adjustments; consider the following suggestions:
o
rehearse the speech from beginning to end rather than in parts
o
time the speech
o
rehearse the speech under as close as possible to those conditions under which you will
present it
o
rehearse in front of a mirror so you can see how you will appear to an audience
o
don’t interrupt rehearsals to make changes, make changes between them
o
rehearse at least three or four times or as long as rehearsal results in improvement
IV.
Step 10: Deliver Your Speech
– Use your voice and body to enhance your presentation.
·
Voice
– your major tool in delivering your message
o
Volume: the intensity (relative loudness or softness) of your voice
varies according to factors such as distance between you and your audience
vary volume to reflect your ideas; be careful not to fade at ends of sentences
o
Rate:
the speed at which you speak; speak at a pace that doesn’t bore but also allows
listeners time for reflection
o
Articulation and Pronunciation:
Articulation refers to the movements of the speech
organs as they modify and interrupt the air
stream that is sent from
the
lungs;
pronunciation is the production of syllables or words according to some accepted
standard. Articulation/pronunciation problems include:
errors of omission – omitting sounds, e.g., “histry” instead of “hi–sto–ry”
errors of substitution – substituting an incorrect sound, e.g., “axe” instead of “ask”
errors of addition – adding sounds that do not belong, e.g., “warsh” instead of
“wash”
errors of accent – use the correct stress pattern for the word, stressing the wrong
syllable of a word, e.g., “or-RAY–ter” instead of “OR-a-ter”
errors of adding sounds – adding sounds that are not part of the correct pronunciation
of the word, e.g., the “s” in “Illinois”
o
Pauses
may be filled ( “um,” “and,” “you know”) or unfilled; unfilled are preferred
;
effective uses of unfilled pauses (silences) include:
pauses at transitional points
pauses at the end of an important assertion
pauses after asking a rhetorical question
pauses before an important idea
pauses before you begin your speech
· Body Action – You communicate with your body as well as your mouth.
o
Eye Contact:
most important aspect of nonverbal communication in public speaking;
two common problems are:
not enough eye contact
eye contact that doesn’t cover the audience fairly
o
Facial Expression:
should be relaxed and appropriate for topic
o
Gestures and Posture:
gestures should be spontaneous and natural; posture should be
straight but not stiff
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o
Movement:
if you move too little, you may appear distant or fearful; if you move too
much, you will detract from your message; use movement to emphasize transitions or to
signal important points
·
Using Notes
– in using notes, consider these guidelines:
o
use only your delivery outline when presenting your speech
o
know your notes intimately
o
use your notes with “open subtlety”; don’t make them more obvious then they need be,
but don’t try to hide them
V. Critically Evaluating Speeches
o
Questions to Consider
– subject, purpose, and thesis
o
is the subject worthwhile? relevant?
o
is the speech’s general purpose to inform or to persuade?
o
is the topic narrow enough to be covered in some depth?
o
is the specific purpose clear to the audience?
o
is the speech’s thesis clear and limited to one idea?
– audience
o
has the speaker considered sociological factors?
o
has the speaker considered willingness, favorableness, and knowledge of the
audience?
– research
o
is the speech adequately researched? Are the sources credible?
o
does the speaker seem to understand the subject thoroughly?
– supporting materials
o
is each major point adequately and appropriately supported?
o
do the supporting materials amplify what they are supposed to amplify?
– major propositions
o
are the speech’s main points clearly related to the thesis?
o
are there the appropriate number of main points?
– organization
o
is the organizational pattern clear? Appropriate?
– wording
o
is the language clear, vivid, and appropriate?
o
are the sentences short, direct, active, positive, and varied?
– the conclusion, introduction, and transitions
o
does the conclusion effectively summarize and close the speech?
o
does the introduction gain attention and provide orientation?
o
are the transitions adequate?
– delivery
o
does the speaker maintain eye contact with the whole audience?
o
are the volume and rate appropriate for the audience, occasion, topic?
o
are the voice and body actions appropriate for the audience, occasion, topic?
o
Expressing and Listening to Criticism
– To ensure constructive critical comments follow
these suggestions:
– Expressing Criticism
o
say something positive
o
be specific
o
be objective
o
limit criticism
o
be constructive
o
focus on behavior
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o
own your own criticism
o
be culturally sensitive
– Listening to Criticism
o
listen with an open mind
o
accept the critic’s viewpoint
o
seek clarification
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
1.
How can we achieve clarity, vividness, and appropriateness in a speech? Identify two guidelines
for each.
2. What are the five guidelines for sentence construction in a speech?
3. What are two ways to provide closure in a conclusion?
4.
What are some ways to gain the attention of an audience in an introduction?
5. What are the common faults that should be avoided in conclusions?
6.
What are the guidelines that should be followed when rehearsing a speech?
7.
Identify the differences between the following methods of delivery: the impromptu method, the
manuscript method, and the extemporaneous method.
8.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of the extemporaneous method of delivery?
9.
How can we use the following dimensions of voice to improve the
effectiveness of a speech:
volume, rate, and pauses?
10.
How can we use the following bodily actions to improve the effectiveness of a speech: eye
contact, facial expression, posture, gestures, and movement?
11. What are some guidelines for evaluating a speech?
Guidelines for evaluating a speech include: say something positive, be specific, be objective, limit
criticism, be constructive, and remember to be culturally sensitive.
ACTIVITIES FOR SKILL DEVELOPMENT
12.1 Constructing Conclusions
Guidelines
: [from Skill Development Experience, text p. 243] Divide the class into dyads. Have each
dyad
work on writing a conclusion to one of the topics listed in the text or included below. You may wish
to assign
topics rather than letting students choose their own. Remind them that the functions of
conclusions
are to summarize and bring closure to the presentation. After each dyad has had sufficient time to compose
their conclusions, have them present them to the rest of the class. Lead a discussion,
following the
guidelines for offering constructive criticism, after each presentation.
Additional Topics for Constructing Conclusions and Introductions
·
Proficiency in a foreign language should be required of all college students.
· College athletics should be abolished.
·
Maximum sentences should be imposed even for first-time offenders of drug laws.
· Alcoholic beverages should be allowed on campus.
· Abortion should be declared illegal.
12.2 Analyzing an Excellent Persuasive Speech
Guidelines
: Have students first evaluate the “Poorly Constructed Persuasive Speech” (text pp. 255-256)
individually. This may be assigned as out–of-class work. Have students discuss their evaluations of the
speech in groups of five or six. Lead the whole class in a discussion of the problems with the speech and
what
could be done to improve it.
12.3 Most Embarrassing Moments
Guidelines
: Have students prepare and present two-minute speeches on one of the most embarrassing
12.4 Let’s Apply the Concepts
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Description
: Either alone or in groups, students should consider their responses to one or more of the
following scenarios. Relate their responses to the concepts indicated in the brackets.
·
You’ve just given a speech to a racially diverse high school class on why they should attend your
college. One audience member asks how racially diverse your faculty and students are. Your
faculty is 94 percent European American, 4 percent Asian American, and 2 percent African
American. You know that the administration has been talking about making a major effort to
recruit a more racially diverse faculty, but no action has been taken so far. Your student
population is approximately 40 percent European American, 40 percent African American, 10
percent Hispanic, and 10 percent Asian American. What do you say? [Public Speaking Ethics]
·
You represent the college newspaper and are asking the student government to increase the
funding for the paper. The student government objects to giving extra money because the paper
has taken on lots of causes that are unpopular with the majority of students. You believe that it’s
essential for the paper the represent the disenfranchised and fully expect it to advocate the same
positions it has in the past. But, if you say this, you won’t get the funding essential to the life of
the paper; the paper won’t be able to survive unless funding is increased. You would get the
funding if you say you’ll give primary coverage to majority positions. What do you say? [Public
Speaking Ethics]
·
Your speech has run overtime and you’ve been given the 30-second stop signal. You wonder if it
would be best to ignore the signal and just continue your speech or if you should wrap up in 30
seconds. In either case, what do you say? [Time Problem]
·
You’re scheduled to give a speech on careers in computer technology to high school students who
have been forced to attend this career day on Saturday. If you don’t win over this unwilling
audience in your introduction, you figure you’re finished. What do you say? [Introductions]
·
You’re one of four running for president of the tenant association. Each candidate must give a
brief talk stating what each would do for the building. All tenants (except you) belong to the
same race. You wonder if you should mention race in your talk. What do you say? [Audience
Adaptation]
·
You introduced your speech with a story you find extremely humorous and laughed out loud after
you finished it. Unfortunately, the audience just didn’t get it – not even one smile in the entire
audience. What do you say? [Unexpected Feedback]
·
You’re giving a speech on the problems of teenage drug abuse and you notice the entire back row
of your audience has totally tuned you out; they’re reading, chatting, working on their laptops.
What do you say? [Audience Inactivity]
·
A student has just given a speech on the glory of bullfighting, something you define as animal
cruelty. To the speaker, however, bullfighting is an important part of the culture. As you bristle
inside, the instructor asks you to critique the speech. What do you say? [Criticizing a Speech]
12.5 The Two-Minute Speech
Prepare and present a two-minute speech in which you explain one of the following topics that are
covered in this chapter. Do go beyond what is covered in this chapter so that you can provide information that
your audience might not know.
· Explain the methods of achieving clarity in language
·
Explain the nature of figures of speech in general and of a few figures of speech in particular.
· Explain the “personal” style.
· Explain how power is expressed verbally and/or nonverbally.
· Explain the parts of a speech introduction or conclusion.
12.56
Introductions
After class lecture/reading assignments are completed for Step 8, put students in groups. Have one group
member act as the recorder, one group member act as the speaker, and one group member (or more) act as
the critic. Give each group a sample topic and have them brainstorm a good introduction for a speech on
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that topic. The recorder creates a draft of the introduction (in outline form), the critic(s) offer(s)
suggestions for improving it, and then the speaker delivers the outline to the class. The class then can give
feedback on the different introductions.
AVAILABLE ASSETS ON MYCOMMUNICATIONLAB
“Making Concepts Specific”
“Tips for an Effective Conclusion”
“Tips for an Effective Introduction”
“Better Transitions”
“Organizing a Scrambled Outline”
“Creating a Speaking Outline”
“How Flexible Are You as a Speaker?”
“Methods of Delivery”
“Speech Delivery”
“Martin Cox Discusses Speech Delivery”
“Speaking on the Arts”
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