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CHAPTER TWO

CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

This chapter provides Answer Keys to the Review Questions that appear at

CHAPTER 1: Recognizing Argument and Finding Issues

1. What did you think of when you encountered the word argument as you began

reading this chapter?

Answers will vary and may include:

by being persuasive

Getting your own way—winning

What do you think now?

2. Provide three examples of your own to illustrate the statement “Argument is

everywhere.”

Answers will vary and may include:

Internet sites, including blogs

Bumper stickers

3. Describe traditional and consensual argument. Give two examples of each.

(pages 6–8)

Traditional argument is adversarial, is sometimes presented as a fight

4. What are some of the conditions necessary for argument to work best? (pages

12–14)

5. What are some of the conditions that may cause argument to fail? (pages 14–15)

Arguments fail when there is no real disagreement, no uncertainty, no

possibility for two or more views, and not enough interest or importance

placed in the issue. Issues that require big changes, or that seem trivial and

CHAPTER 2: The Rhetorical Situation: Understanding Audience and

Context

1. What are the five elements in the rhetorical situation? Use TRACE to help you

remember. (pages 28–30)

Elements of the rhetorical situation are:

Text,

2. How can a reader use the rhetorical situation to analyze an argument essay?

(page 30)

A reader may use the five parts of the rhetorical situation (TRACE) to

analyze an argumentative essay:

Text—to determine the kind of text and any special qualities and features

How can a writer use the rhetorical situation during the planning phase of writing

a paper? (pages 30–35)

The five parts of the rhetorical situation can help the writer get started:

Exigence provides the author’s motivation for writing on a particular issue;

if the author and the audience share enough common ground;

produce a paper that meets its requirements.

3. Why is the audience important in argument? What types of positions might an

audience initially hold? What possible outcomes are associated with arguments

directed to each of these audiences? (pages 32, 35–36)

The purpose of argument is to bring about some change in the audience. In

order to do that, a writer needs to analyze the audience’s present opinions,

values, and motives, and show as often as possible that the author shares

4. What is a discourse community? (pages 36–37)

A discourse community is a specialized group that shares subject matter,

background, experience, values, and a common language (including

specialized and technical vocabulary, jargon, or slang).

To what discourse communities do you belong?

Answers will vary and may include sorority, fraternity, professional group,

5. What is the universal audience? (page 37)

The universal audience is a composite audience imagined by the audience that

has individual differences but also important common qualities. Every arguer

Why is it a useful idea? (page 37)

The concept of the universal audience is helpful when the audience is largely

unknown and you cannot find much information about it. It is also useful to

try to construct an unfamiliar audience’s possible initial position on your

CHAPTER 3: Learning More About Issues: Conducting Research

1. What is the difference between library subscription databases, such as Academic

Search Complete and LexisNexis, and the World Wide Web? (page 50)

Library subscription services are paid for by the libraries and to use them

What types of material might you find by using each of them? (pages 50–53)

Library subscription databases provide access to several years’ worth of

articles from a large number of different print periodicals. All of these

databases provide full publishing information about the articles they publish.

2. What is a bibliography? (page 56)

A bibliography is an alphabetically arranged list of sources you have decided

are credible, related to your issue, and potentially valuable to your research.

What is an annotated bibliography? (page 61)

An annotated bibliography includes summaries of the listed articles. It can

An annotated bibliography helps you visualize your sources, their basic content,

and your reaction to them as a unit of information gathered in one place.

3. Name some of the characteristics of a credible source. (pages 55–56)

A credible source is:

associated with an organization that is recognized in the field,

taken from an online source that is duplicated in print,

accessed by a large number of people,

directed at a wide audience,

edited well.

4. Why would you create a research plan to guide your research? (page 48)

Plagiarism is the act of passing someone else’s words off as your own,

whether or not the material is published.

others at all stages of the paper-writing process.

CHAPTER 4: Writing the Exploratory Paper

1. Describe the exploratory argument paper along with some of the benefits of

writing it. (pages 71–73, 83–85)

In the exploratory argument paper, the arguer identifies not just one position

but as many of the major positions on an issue as possible, both past and present,

and explains them through summaries and an analysis of the overall rhetorical

situation for the issue. The analysis of the rhetorical situation in these papers

papers also require both writer and reader to consider a variety of views, which

results in a deeper understanding of the issue and the creation of more common

ground with those who hold different views.

2. Briefly describe a process for producing an argument paper. (pages 73–83)

Select an issue, narrow it, take a position, and write a claim. Write what you

3. What are the advantages of outlining your ideas before you write a draft? (pages

76–77)

When the outline is finished, you will be able to turn your full attention to

writing, and you will not have to stop and figure out what to do next. Your

4. Name at least three specific suggestions for revision made in this chapter, and

describe in detail how you could use each of them. (pages 78–82)

Look at your draft as a whole, and focus on organization, paragraphing, and

5. What are some possible ways of conducting peer review? (page 85)

Peer-review sessions may include only three or four of your fellow students.

You may be asked to provide each member of the review group with a

photocopy of your paper so that as you read your paper to them they can

begin to mark problem areas to discuss later. Or you may participate in a

What are the advantages of peer review?

Another reader is almost always likely to have suggestions that can make

your final paper better. Peer groups also make the writing task more sociable

CHAPTER 5: The Toulmin Model of Argument: Understanding the Parts

1. Name and describe the six parts of the Toulmin model. (pages 95–96)

The six parts of the Toulmin model are:

claim—the main point of the argument

support—information supplied to prove the claim

Which parts, stated or inferred, can be found in any argument? (page 97)

claim

Which parts are used, as needed, to make an argument more convincing to a

particular audience? (page 97)

backing

rebuttal

2. What are some synonyms for each of the three essential parts of the Toulmin

model. Consult Box 5.1. (page 99)

Synonyms:

claim—thesis, proposition, conclusion, main point

3. What are subclaims? (pages 100–101)

Evidence, examples, reasons, opinions, and facts.

4. Define warrants? (pages 103–105)

Warrants are the values, assumptions, and beliefs that can be spelled out in

an argument but usually are not. They strongly influence the position the

the aims of the arguer. The audience, by accepting the underlying ideas and

values of the arguer, will also be more willing to accept the arguer’s position

on the issue.

5. Give some examples of qualifiers. (page 107)

CHAPTER 6: The Types of Claims: Establishing Purpose and Organization

1. What are the five types of claims? (page 122)

Fact, definition, cause, value, and policy

2. What are the questions associated with each type? (page 122)

Fact: Did it happen? Is it true?

The predictable sequence is: fact and definition, cause, value, and policy.

with a single type of claim; instead, there will generally be a predominant

type of claim, with the other types serving as subclaims.

5. What events have occurred in the past few months, either on campus or on the

national or international level, that have generated issues? What are some of these

CHAPTER 7: The Types of Proof: Supporting the Claim

1. Describe logical proofs. (page 141)

Logical proofs include facts, reasons, and opinions that are based on reality.

The support is real and drawn from experience.

Name the seven types of logical proof. Use the mnemonic SICDADS to help you

remember them. (pages 143–147)

The logical proofs are:

Sign,

Induction,

Name one type of proof that builds ethos. (Use the mnemonic VAM to help you

remember proofs that build ethos or that create emotion.) (page 148)

Argument from authority is a proof that builds ethos.

Describe the emotional proofs. (pages 148–150)

2. Describe some of the features of the language and style associated with each of

the three types of proof. (pages 150–154)

Logical language uses reasons, is explicit, and evokes a cognitive, rational

response. Language that establishes ethos is appropriate to the audience and

subject and is restrained, sincere, and fair-minded; it demonstrates the

3. What are fallacies? (pages 154–155)

Fallacies are illogical and misleading arguments.

What are some of the qualities that characterize fallacious thinking? (page 155)

The proof itself tends to be distorted, insufficient, unreliable, exaggerated, or

4. Describe three characteristics of ethical argument. (pages 159–160)

Arguer understands the issue and various positions on it

Fair and unbiased

5. What is the difference between ethos in argument and ethics in argument?

(pages 159–160)

Ethos refers to the arguer’s attempt to establish credibility. Ethics refers to

the morality of the argument presented.

CHAPTER 8: Writing the Argument Analysis Paper: Review and Synthesis

1. Describe the argument analysis paper. (page 168)

The argument analysis paper explains the argumentation methods an author

2. What is the purpose of this paper? (page 168)

This paper gives the student the opportunity to review and synthesize what

3. What do you need to avoid doing in this paper that might be part of other types

of argument papers? (page 168)

The writer should avoid criticizing or showing what is wrong with the

4. Describe the rhetorical situation for the letters by the eight white clergymen and

Martin Luther King Jr. (pages 170–172)

In 1963 Reverend Martin Luther King Jr. was arrested and jailed for

demonstrating against segregation in Birmingham, Alabama. During the

6. What are the focus topics? (pages 172–173)

Topics that can be used to analyze an argument.

Provide three examples of them.

Select from this list:

Rhetorical situation

CHAPTER 9: Analyzing and Creating Visual Arguments

1. Where are you likely to encounter visual argument? (p. 194)

You will encounter visual argument online, in print, in textbooks and other

It is classified as argument when it takes a position on an unresolved issue

and aims to convince the viewer of a particular point of view.

2. What are the eight special features of visual argument that make it convincing?

(pages 195–204)

Eight special features of visual argument that make it convincing include the

sense of immediacy it establishes by pulling the viewer into the picture; the

common ground and viewer identification it creates; the emotional response it

evokes; the juxtaposition of materials used to create fresh associations in the

3. What information about argument theory from earlier chapters in this book

might you employ to help you analyze visual argument? (pages 204–209)

Argument theories useful in analyzing visual and oral arguments include the

rhetorical situation, the Toulmin model, the claim questions, the proof

4. Describe some ways that you might use visual argument as support for a written

argument. (pages 209–212)

You may provide support for a written or oral argument by adding clip art

from the Internet; adding printed material from books, magazines, or

5. What ideas from this chapter might help you create an effective visual argument

that stands alone? (pages 212–214)

Cartoons, pictures, drawings, clip art, graphs, flowcharts, PowerPoint,

CHAPTER 10: Writing the Rogerian Argument Paper

1. What are the four goals of Rogerian argument? (pages 223–224)

Let readers know they have been understood.

Propose solutions that combine elements from both sides so readers will be

more likely to agree with author.

How do they differ from those of traditional argument? (p. 225)

2. What are some of the advantages of Rogerian argument? (page 227)

Advantages of Rogerian argument are reduction of tension and disagreement

What are some of the disadvantages? (pages 227–228)

Disadvantages are restating the opponent’s side when the arguer is too

emotionally involved in the issue to do that well. It is also criticized as

3. In what types of argumentation situations do you think you might find Rogerian

argument more productive than traditional argument? (pages 219–221)

Answers will vary but should include a polarizing issue where consequences

could be severe without some understanding and agreement.

4. In what type of argumentation situation do you think you might find traditional

argument more productive than Rogerian argument? (page 219)

When the emphasis is on winning the argument.

Describe an issue, along with the rhetorical situation, which might prompt you to

5. What difficulties, if any, do you personally contemplate in using Rogerian

argument? How do you feel about using this strategy? (p. 221)

Some students are drawn to Rogerian argument and feel they have found

CHAPTER 11: Writing the Researched Position Paper

1. Name and describe the six parts of classical organization. (page 238)

Introduction. Makes the subject and purpose clear right from the start.

Statement of Proposition and Division. States claim at or near the end of the

introduction. May name major sections of paper.

2. Name five examples of organizational patterns that you might use in a position

paper. Describe their main features or rationale, and name the type of claim

typically associated with each of them. (pages 239–242)

Claim with reason (or reasons followed by claim) is often used to establish a

claim of fact and takes the following form: Statement of claim, Reason 1,

Reason 2, Reason 3, and so forth.

Problem-solution is commonly used in policy papers. There are at least three

ways to organize these papers. The problem is described, followed by the

solution. Or the solution is proposed, and then the problem that motivated it

is described. Or a problem may be followed by several solutions, one of which

is selected as best.

“inductive leap” to the conclusion. This may be useful in a claim of fact.

Comparison and contrast can be used to demonstrate a variety of similarities

or differences. It is useful in definition and value arguments.

3. Name at least one type of proof that would be appropriate for developing each

of the five types of claims. (page 244)

informed opinion

Definition: authorities, accepted sources, analogies, examples, signs

Cause: facts, statistics, historical and literal analogies, signs, induction,

deduction, quotations from authorities

Value: value proofs, motivational proofs, literal and figurative analogies,

quotes, induction, signs, definition, cause

Policy: data, motivational and value proofs, literal analogies, authorities,

deduction, definition, statistics, cause

4. What steps can you take to avoid plagiarism when you are incorporating

research materials into your draft and when you are preparing the final copy?

(pages 248–249)

5. What is the purpose of the “Works Cited” page (MLA) and the “References”

page (APA)? (pages 249–250)

The “Works Cited” page (MLA) and the “References” page (APA) show

CHAPTER THREE

WORKING WITH THE CLASS ACTIVITIES AND

WRITING ASSIGNMENTS IN EACH CHAPTER

The purpose of this chapter is to provide instructors with a preview of each of the

eleven chapters in Essentials of Argument. In fact, it may facilitate class planning to read

on the inside front cover of the textbook provides a list of the major writing assignments.

The assignment sequence, “Writing a Research Paper That Makes an Argument,” appears

on the inside back cover.

Be selective with the activities, since no class can do all of them. At times,

instructors may want to allow students to select and vote on activities that particularly

Chapter 1: Recognizing Argument and Finding Issues

The purpose of Chapter 1 is to introduce students to some of the special

characteristics of argument. Students are asked to write out their current ideas and

classroom where all students have a voice. Finally, students learn about issues and where

to find them.

Class Activities and Writing Assignments:

1. Understand Common Ground.

a. Build common ground with your classmates.

This activity is a great icebreaker and helps students create a classroom

community where they all participate. When asked to identify areas they have in