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required by this argument: that everyone likes cooked pork and the only matter for
argument is how to cook it.1 You can see from these examples that in an enthymeme
what has been left out is sometimes as important as what is explicitly stated. Unstated but
A Comparison of the Syllogism, Enthymeme, and Toulmin Model
Of the three models to use for analyzing and summarizing an argument—the
syllogism, the enthymeme, and the Toulmin model—the Toulmin model has some
advantages that make it the best model for both reading and writing argument. Its most
essential advantage is that it invites more shared common ground and more audience
participation, in the form of give and take, than do the other two models. The syllogism,
for instance, lays out a summary statement of the main line of reasoning in the form of
than does the syllogism. The audience is expected to supply the parts of the argument that
are not explicitly stated. This increases the possibility of interaction between author and
audience. Still, when the audience has completed the enthymeme, the argument is
complete. No further give-and-take is invited or required.
The Toulmin model goes beyond both the syllogism and the enthymeme in
inviting argument participation, encouraging an exchange of views, and establishing
common ground. The backing, rebuttal, and qualifier of the Toulmin model, in particular,
require an arguer both to anticipate other perspectives and views and, at times, to
argument outcomes. These features make the Toulmin model the most valuable of the
three models for examining the multiple perspectives likely to be expressed in response
to complex modern issues.
A critic of the Toulmin model has questioned the utility of the model because, he
claims, the first three parts of the model are essentially like the syllogism and the
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debate. In a debate, one side presents an argument, and then the other side presents a
counterargument. The attacks on the opposition and the rebuttals are formatted as
separate arguments. A judge finally decides who wins.
Debate is only one type of argument, however. Setting up two separate arguments
might work for debate but would not work as well for inquiry, negotiation, or any other
Chapter 6: The Types of Claims: Establishing Purpose and Organization
The purpose of Chapter 6 is to teach students the major types of claims in
argument. This information will help students recognize purpose in argument and also
Class Activities and Writing Assignments:
1. Analyze the Types of Claims.
a. Students are asked to analyze the types of claims in five essays and
advertisements. The answers are as follows:
(1) “‘A’ Is for ‘Absent’” (page 25)—Policy. Claim: “I encourage professors to
give pop quizzes in place of attendance policies.” (para. 9)
(2) “Welcome to the Club” (pages 39–42)—Value. Claim: “I told them that
(4) “Sense of Community” (page 110)—Cause. Claim: “It came from an
organization that emphasizes respect for people and commitment to a cause larger
than one’s self: The United States Navy.” (last sentence)
(5) “Brother, Can You Spare a Word?” (pages 111–112)—Definition. Claim: “To
the extent that more public empathy is needed to prod a stronger attack on low
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2. Read the Following Essay and Analyze the Claim.
Assign students to read “Bringing Up Adultolescents” (pages 135–137) before
they come to class. You may want to prepare them for reading this essay by asking the
questions labeled “Before You Read” on page 135. When they have read the essay,
also various types of minor claims, this activity allows students to work together to find
the various claims and then to determine which one predominates. This activity
reinforces the major concepts taught in Chapter 6.
3. Writing Assignment: Types of Claims.
Students, working in groups, select one of the claims listed in the activity and use it as a
starter sentence to brainstorm ideas and then to write a short essay of the type called for in the
activity. This activity also allows you to introduce some of the types of support and
organizational patterns that are sometimes associated with different types of claims. (See Table
4. Prewriting: Develop Your Claim for a Future Position Paper (Optional Sequence).
This activity allows students to use the claim questions associated with the five
types of claims as a heuristic to invent material for a paper. The questions they ask to
help them generate information for their papers is organized on Worksheet 6: Claim
Development on page 139. Students write out an issue in the form of a question. Then
they respond to this question as though it were a fact, as though it needed defining, as
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If you are following the optional-assignment sequence, ask students to write out
the issue questions they have selected as the topics for their position paper, and ask them
to answer the claim questions as they relate to their issues. They should write at least a
paragraph in response to each question. The questions are listed under the heading “Five
Supplementary background information on stasis theory.
The following material explains the origins and development of the types of
claims. Instructors may want to provide students with added background on this subject.
Classical Stasis Theory
Classical argument theorists were interested in identifying the key questions that
arguers seek to answer when dealing with disputable topics. Identifying the most central
and critical issue that is being proved in an argument is called stasis theory. Stasis in
events occurred. This type of argument is associated mainly with courts of law.
Deliberative argument deals with the future. It focuses on solutions to problems and
deliberations about future courses of action. It is associated with politics and planning in
various arenas. Epideictic argument focuses on value, specifically the praise or blame of
particular individuals, including what is good, what is bad, what is moral, and what is
immoral about their characters and actions. The key questions associated with these three
types of argument—What happened? What should we do? and Is it good or bad?—are
some of the stases, or key questions, that modern arguers use to describe the types of
claims that give unity, purpose, and direction to their arguments.
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Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2005, Pearson Education, Inc.
courtroom lawyers. They vary somewhat in number and focus, but mainly they help the
lawyer prepare an airtight law case.
Types of Claims in Modern Argument
Stasis theory persists in modern argument theory. We find it useful to classify
claims according to the four or five questions that modern arguments invariably address.
In modern argument, however, as we have shown, we no longer limit the domain of
argument mainly to the courtroom. Instead, argument is perceived as being present
everywhere, in all of the domains of personal and public life. Consequently, an updated
Wayne Brockriede and Douglas Ehninger, the modern theorists who helped
popularize the Toulmin model in this country, also identify four types of claims, but
theirs are somewhat different from Fahnestock and Secor’s. They claim that disputable
questions have customarily been classified according to the four questions: 1. Does it
In preparing to write this book, for a period of several months I read on a daily
basis several periodicals and two newspapers that regularly present arguments on a
variety of present and recurring issues. One of the things I looked for and thought about
as I read was a set of categories for claims. I found that the most useful set combines
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Chapter 7: Types of Proof: Supporting the Claim
The purpose of Chapter 7 is to teach students the types of proofs in argument.
Class Activities and Writing Assignments:
1. Analyze Logos, Ethos, and Pathos in an Advertisement.
This activity allows students to look for proofs in the “Sense of Community”
advertisement on page 110 of the textbook. They are asked to identify proofs that appeal
to logic and emotion and also that establish ethos. Advertisements are easier to work with
than essays, and beginning with an advertisement paves the way for analyzing the proofs
in the essay in the next activity. Students should be asked, What appeals to your sense of
2. Analyze the Proofs in an Essay.
Ask students to read this essay and analyze the proofs in it. To help them read, ask
them the “Before You Read” question before they begin the assignment.
Notice that the proofs in this essay are labeled. Ask students to find these proofs in
the essay: for example, the signs carried by the demonstrators indicate that they are
immigrants demonstrating for the right to stay in the United States, and they are a sign of
their reactions to this essay, help them make connections between proofs and the effect
they have on the audience, and will finally provide them with ideas for using proofs in
their own writing.
3. Analyze the Fallacies in an Essay
Ask students to read “Sexual Harassment and the Feminist ‘Front’” (pages 164–
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4. Prewriting: Plan the Proofs and Language for a Future Position Paper (Optional
Sequence).
Students plan the proofs and language they will use in the position paper they
write in Chapter 10 by completing Worksheet 7: Proofs and Language Development on
pages 166–167. Tell them that they will not use every type of proof, but they should
consider the different types and write ideas for using as many as possible that are relevant
Chapter 8: Writing the Argument Analysis Paper: Review and Synthesis
The purpose of Chapter 8 is to encourage students to review and synthesize the
argument theory they have learned in earlier chapters and to use it to analyze Martin
Class Activities and Writing Assignments:
1. Form Groups and Discuss the Focus Topics.
Divide the class into eight groups, and assign each group one of the eight focus
topics listed on pages 172–173. To prepare for the group work, students should read the
two letters and make individual notes on the focus topic assigned to their group. The
questions in the margins of the letters will facilitate this process. In class each group will
2. Write an Argument Analysis Paper.
Students will write a four-page double-spaced argument analysis paper in which
they analyze the two letters (pages 174–189). Have them read “The Rhetorical Situation”
(pages 170–172). By understanding the historical context, they will be better able to
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describe the rhetorical situation with particular emphasis on exigence, audiences, and
constraints. The paper should summarize the positions taken on the issue in each letter
and state the claims in both. They should also describe and evaluate the support,
Chapter 9: Analyzing and Creating Visual Arguments
Chapter 9 teaches students to recognize and analyze visual argument and to
understand the special features that make it convincing. Examples of visual argument can
Class Activities and Writing Assignments:
Visual Argument:
1. Locate a Visual Argument and Analyze It in Class.
Ask students to look through magazines, newspapers, textbooks, or the Internet to
find a visual argument. Some students bring in flyers, advertisements, or photographs as
well. Remind them that argument is everywhere, and that this is particularly true of visual
2. Analyze a Cartoon.
Students are directed to study the model for the analysis of a cartoon that appears
on pages 206–209 of this chapter and then to conduct a similar analysis of the cartoon on
page 216. Questions that help them make this analysis, while providing a review of
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3. Analyze Visual Arguments in the Color Portfolio (follows page 224).
This activity invites students to form small groups, each of which selects one of
the color photographs that appear in the color portfolio of the textbook to analyze. Each
group analyzes the rhetorical situation and the special features of the visual. Next, they
4. Explore an Issue Visually Through Images.
Ask students to study the two sets of images in the color portfolio that give different
perspectives on a single topic: Plates 2 and 3 (walls) and Plates 4 and 5 (hands). Their
assignment is to collect three or more images that illustrate a topic of their choice. They should
5. Create a Stand-Alone Visual Argument and Write an Analysis of It.
This assignment asks students to create a visual argument of their own and then to write
a paper describing what they have done. Instead of a written paper about this argument, you
may want to ask them to display it and explain it orally to the class. Ask students to select an
issue, make a claim, and use visual materials to support the claim. They may cut and paste,
draw, use photographs, or experiment with other methods, such as PowerPoint or Web sites to
Chapter 10: Writing the Rogerian Argument Paper
The purpose of Chapter 10 is to explain Rogerian argument as a strategy for
establishing common ground in argument and also as an alternative strategy for
traditional argument. In some situations Rogerian argument can be more effective than
traditional argument. Some students like Rogerian argument immediately, particularly if
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Class Activities and Writing Assignments:
1. Understanding Rogerian Argument as a Strategy.
a. This activity asks students to analyze the Rogerian strategy in “The Future of
Life.” Students should answer the “Before You Read” questions and then read the essay.
The issue described in the essay, people first vs. environment first, has the potential of
b. This activity asks students to determine whether or not Martin Luther King Jr.
made any effort to use Rogerian strategies and build common ground in “Letter From
Birmingham Jail” (pages 179–189). Have students examine the first paragraph of the
2. Write a Rogerian Response.
Direct students to find a written essay with which they disagree and write a
Rogerian response to it. They may want to respond to one of the essays in this textbook,
3. Writing Assignment: The Rogerian Argument Paper.
This is the major writing assignment for Chapter 9, and it directs students to draw
on the instruction in the chapter and write a Rogerian argument paper. Two options for
setting up this assignment are provided in this activity:
Option 1 (Optional Sequence). Students use the same issue they have already
written about in their exploratory papers and position papers. They identify the position
on the issue that they disagree with the most and move that position to the beginning of
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correct in some situations, they write a clear transition to their own position, they state
their position and show the contexts in which it is valid, and they reconcile the positions
by showing how a stronger position could be achieved by combining elements from both
positions.
Option 2. If students are tired of the issues they have already written about, they
may want to select a whole new issue for their Rogerian argument paper. Suggest they
refer to the issues they recorded at the beginning of the semester or that they select an
issue that they understand from at least two opposing points of view. They then write a
When students have selected one of these options, you can ask them to follow the
instructions for prewriting in exercise 2 on page 230: “Write a brief summary of the
opposing position and a brief summary of your position to make certain you understand
them both clearly.” Students should also study the two examples of student papers and
understand how they meet the requirements of Rogerian argument. To help them do this,
Chapter 11: Writing the Researched Position Paper
The purpose of Chapter 11 is to teach students to write a position paper based on
the research and planning they have done. They will be taught to organize their material,
Class Activities and Writing Assignments:
1. Review and Complete Invention Activities.
The purpose of Worksheet 9: Invention on page 253 is to summarize the different
invention strategies that have been taught in earlier chapters and to invite students to use
strategies they have not yet used that may seem productive for them. No student will use
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2. Writing Assignment: The Researched Position Paper (Optional Sequence).
a. Write a list, outline, or partial manuscript that will serve as a plan for your paper
and bring it to class.
Students are asked to bring either a partial manuscript or an outline to class for
peer review. An example of what this might look like appears in the box on page 245.
Each student should take 5–10 minutes of group time to describe the ideas in their paper
and how they intend at this point to organize them. It is best if each student can provide
other group members with copies of this version of the paper, even if it is very rough, so
b. Create a class peer-critique sheet.
This activity teaches students to create a peer-critique sheet for peer review. They
need to identify 7–8 requirements for a position paper. The instructor may want to
reserve the right to contribute one of two of these criteria. Once students have created
these criteria, they can use them to critique one another’s papers. In addition, teachers can
c. Write a draft of your paper, revise it, and bring it to class.
Students bring complete revised drafts of their papers to class for a second and
final peer review. It is best if they can provide each group member with a copy of the
paper. They will read the papers aloud to members of their peer-editing groups. Each peer
will then ask questions and make suggestions to help the author improve the manuscript.
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d. Make final revisions and prepare the final copy.
Students complete the final versions of their papers. They should use the
e. Write a one-page Toulmin analysis of your paper.
Students write brief Toulmin analyses to submit with their papers. This encourages
f. Write a submission letter to your instructor.
Instructors will find it even easier to grade these papers if students submit a short
accompanying letter in which they state their own perceptions about the strengths and
weaknesses of this paper. The instructor can respond to the student’s evaluation and add
3. Conduct a Class Symposium and Present Your Research (Optional Sequence).
When students have completed some or all of the assignments in the Optional
Sequence, you can ask them to present their work orally to the class in a symposium
format. Refer to Activity 3 on pages 254–255 of the textbook to set this up and to the
description of Activity 8 on page 45 of this manual. To prepare for the symposium, place
students into four or five groups by similar topics. You can use the writing groups the
class formed for writing their position papers. Have each student write a page-long
abstract of their position paper in which they write the claim, the main points made about