Chapter 2 Diversity in Organizations Page 42
1.
II. Biographical Characteristics
A. Introduction
2. Start with factors that are readily available in an employee’s personnel file. There is a
sizable amount of research on these factors.
B. Age
1. Age in the workforce is likely to be an issue of increasing importance during the next
decade for many reasons.
at age 70.
2. Employers hold mixed feelings about older workers.
technology.
3. What effect does age actually have on turnover, absenteeism, productivity, and
satisfaction?
c. Their long tenure also tends to provide them with higher wage rates, longer paid
vacations, and more attractive pension benefits.
4. It may seem likely that age is positively correlated to absenteeism, but this isn’t true.
versus younger employees.
b. Furthermore, older workers do not have more psychological problems or
day-to-day physical health problems than younger worker.
5. The majority of studies have shown “virtually no relationship between age and job
Development and Gerontology.
a. Indeed, some studies indicate that older adults perform better.
6. Related to performance, there is a conception that creativity lessens as people age.
7. A final concern is the relationship between age and job satisfaction, where the
evidence is mixed.
committed to their employing organizations.
b. Other studies, however, have found a U-shaped relationship.
Chapter 2 Diversity in Organizations Page 43
during middle age and then rises again in the later years.
C. Sex
1. Few issues initiate more debates, misconceptions, and unsupported opinions than
b. A recent meta-analysis of job performance studies found that women scored
slightly higher than men on performance measures.
2. Women still earn less money than men for the same positions, even in traditionally
female roles.
family caregiving roles.
States, have laws against sex discrimination.
5. Gender biases and gender discrimination are still serious issues, but there are
indications that the situation is improving.
D. Race and Ethnicity
1. Race is a controversial issue.
a. We define race as the heritage people use to identify themselves; ethnicity is the
additional set of cultural characteristics that often develops with race.
b. Typically, we associate race with biology and ethnicity with culture, but there is a
history of self-identifying for both classifications.
c. Laws against race and ethnic discrimination are in effect in many countries,
including Australia, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
2. Research into effects of race and ethnic diversity.
a. Employees tend to favor colleagues of their own race in performance evaluations,
promotion decisions, pay raises.
b. African-Americans generally do worse than whites in employment decisions.
c. Most research shows that members of racial and ethnic minorities report higher
levels of discrimination in the workplace.
d. Discrimination leads to increased turnover, which is detrimental to organizational
performance.
3. While better representation of all racial groups in organizations remains a goal, an
individual of minority status is much less likely to leave the organization if there is a
feeling of inclusiveness, known as positive diversity climate.
a. Some research suggests that having a positive climate for diversity overall can
lead to increased sales, commitment, and retention, suggesting there are
organizational performance gains associated with reducing racial and ethnic
discrimination.
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E. Disabilities
1. With the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) in 1990, individuals with disabilities
became an increasing number in the U.S. workforce.
2. It requires reasonable accommodation for disabilities.
expectations.
b. They are less likely to be hired.
F. Hidden Disabilities
1. Hidden, or invisible, disabilities generally fall under the categories of sensory
disabilities, autoimmune disorders, chronic illness or pain, cognitive or learning
impairments, sleep disorders, and psychological challenges.
impairments.
3. However, employees must disclose their conditions to their employers in order to be
eligible for workplace accommodations and employment protection.
4. Research suggests that disclosure helps all – the individual, others, and organizations.
5. Disclosure may increase the job satisfaction and well-being of the individual, help
G. Other Differentiating Characteristics
1. Tenure
a. The issue of the impact of job seniority on job performance has been subject to
misconceptions and speculations.
(1) Extensive reviews of the seniority-productivity relationship have been
conducted.
performance.
(3) As such, organizational tenure appears to be a good predictor of employee
performance, although there is some evidence that the relationship is not
linear: Differences in organizational tenure are more important to job
performance for relatively new or inexperienced employees than among those
who have been on the job longer.
2. Religion
Jews and Episcopalians.
Chapter 2 Diversity in Organizations Page 45
(3) Despite these numbers, there is evidence that people are discriminated against
3. Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity
a. Sexual orientation
(1) While much has changed, the full acceptance and accommodation of gay,
lesbian, bisexual, and transgender employees remains a work in progress.
(2) Federal law does not protect employees against discrimination based on
Civil Rights Act of 1964.
(5) Employers differ regarding their policies on this issue.
b. Gender identity
(1) Companies are increasingly putting in place policies to govern how their
organizations treat transgender employees.
4. Cultural Identity
observe the norms of that culture.
b. Cultural norms influence the workplace, sometimes resulting in clashes.
c. Thanks to global integration and changing labor markets, global companies do
well to understand and respect the cultural identities of their employees, both as
groups and as individuals.
III. Ability
A. Ability is an individual’s current capacity to perform various tasks in a job.
B. Intellectual Abilities
1. Intellectual abilities are abilities needed to perform mental activities – thinking,
reasoning, and problem solving.
general intellectual abilities.
d. So, too, are popular college admission tests, such as the SAT and ACT, and
graduate admission tests in business (GMAT), law (LSAT), and medicine
(MCAT).
e. Testing firms don’t claim their tests assess intelligence, but experts know they do.
Chapter 2 Diversity in Organizations Page 46
deductive reasoning, spatial visualization, and memory. Exhibit 2-2 describes these
dimensions.
4. If you score high on verbal comprehension, you’re more likely to also score high on
spatial visualization.
intelligence, general mental ability (GMA).
5. Evidence strongly supports the idea that the structures and measures of intellectual
abilities generalize across cultures.
6. Jobs differ in the demands they place on intellectual abilities.
to exercise discretion, a high IQ is not as important as performing well.
traditionally less complex jobs.
7. Although intelligence is a big help in performing a job well, it doesn’t make people
happier or more satisfied with their jobs.
a. In fact, research suggests that those with higher cognitive ability and who are high
performers in the workplace might be victimized, bullied, and mistreated by their
peers due to envy and social comparison.
C. Physical Abilities
1. Introduction
a. Though the changing nature of work suggests intellectual abilities are increasingly
important for many jobs, physical abilities have been and will remain valuable.
b. Nine basic abilities involved in the performance of physical tasks. (Exhibit 2-3)
IV. Implementing Diversity Management Strategies
A. Introduction
1. Having discussed a variety of ways in which people differ, we now look at how a
manager can and should manage these differences.
2. Diversity management makes everyone more aware of and sensitive to the needs
and differences of others.
3. This definition highlights the fact that diversity programs include and are meant for
everyone.
4. Diversity is much more likely to be successful when we see it as everyone’s business
than if we believe it helps only certain groups of employees.
B. Attracting, Selecting, Developing, and Retaining Diverse Employees
1. One method of enhancing workforce diversity is to target recruiting messages to
specific demographic groups underrepresented in the workforce.
a. This means placing advertisements in publications geared toward specific
demographic groups.
b. Diversity advertisements that fail to show women and minorities in positions of
organizational leadership send a negative message about the diversity climate at
an organization.
Chapter 2 Diversity in Organizations Page 47
groups.
C. Diversity in Groups
1. Groups are an essential part of organizational settings.
a. If employees feel no cohesion or sense of membership, group attributes are likely
to be less.
characteristic of interest.
(2) Demographic diversity (in gender, race, and ethnicity) does not appear to
either help or hurt team performance in general.
(3) On the other hand, teams of individuals who are highly intelligent,
conscientious, and interested in working in team settings are more effective.
conscientiousness, and uninterested in teamwork.
c. In other cases, differences can be a strength.
(1) Groups of individuals with different types of expertise and education are more
effective than homogeneous groups.
(2) Similarly, a group made up entirely of assertive people who want to be in
achieve superior performance.
D. Expatriate Adjustment
1. The experience of moving to a different country and adjusting to its new cultural,
interactive, and work-related norms is a major undertaking for both the expatriate
(i.e., the employee on international assignment) and the host country nationals.
poor performance, prejudice, and misunderstanding.
3. Several factors can be targeted to ensure that the adjustment process goes smoothly.
a. For one, feelings of empowerment along with the motivation to interact with
those of other cultures were found in one study to be related to ease of adjustment,
increased satisfaction, and reduced intentions to leave prematurely.
familial support.
4. These studies suggest that organizations should select employees for international
assignments who are capable of adjusting quickly and then ensure they have the
support they need for their assignment.
E. Effective Diversity Programs
1. Effective diversity programs have three components:
Chapter 2 Diversity in Organizations Page 48
demographic characteristics.
b. They teach managers how a diverse workforce will be better able to serve a
diverse market of customers and clients.
c. They foster personal development practices that bring out the skills and abilities
of all workers, acknowledging how differences in perspective can be a valuable
way to improve performance for everyone.
discriminatory treatment is unfair.
b. Regardless of race or gender, people are generally in favor of diversity-oriented
programs, including affirmative action, if they believe the policies ensure
everyone a fair opportunity to show their skills and abilities.
3. Organizational leaders should examine their workforce to determine whether target
groups have been underutilized.
backfire.
6. Finally, research indicates a tailored approach will be needed for international
organizations.
V. Summary and Implications for Managers
A. This chapter looks at diversity from many perspectives paying particular attention to
organization.
C. Policies to improve the climate for diversity can be effective, so long as they are designed
to acknowledge all employees’ perspectives.
D. Implications for managers:
1. Understand your organization’s anti-discrimination policies thoroughly and share
them with your employees.
5. Seek to understand and respect the unique biographical characteristics of your
employees; a fair but individualistic approach yields the best performance.