1.
II. Responsible Leadership
A. Authentic Leadership
values and beliefs openly and candidly.
2. The result: people come to have faith in them.
3. Recent research indicates that authentic leadership especially when shared among top
performance.
4. Furthermore, when leaders “practice what they preach”, or act on their values openly
B. Ethical Leadership
1. Ethics touches on leadership at a number of junctures.
2. Leaders who treat their followers with fairness, especially by providing. Leaders rated
turnover intentions.
3. To integrate ethical and charismatic leadership, scholars have advanced the idea of
socialized charismatic leadership—conveying other-centered (not self-centered)
values through leaders who model ethical conduct.
4. These leaders are able to bring employee values in line with their own values through
their words and actions.
C. Servant Leadership
servant leadership.
3. Servant leadership may be more prevalent and more effective in certain cultures.
III. Positive Leadership
A. Trust
out.
2. Trust is a primary attribute associated with leadership.
abused.
5. In a simple contractual exchange of goods and services, your employer is legally
bound to pay you for fulfilling your job description.
a. But today’s rapid reorganizations, diffusion of responsibility, and collaborative
team-based work style mean employment relationships are not stable long-term
contracts with explicit terms.
b. Rather, they are more fundamentally based on trusting relationships than ever
before.
B. The Outcomes of Trust
1. Trust encourages taking risks.
a. Whenever leaders and employees decide to deviate from the usual way of doing
things, or to take their supervisors’ word on a new direction, they are taking a risk.
2. Trust facilitates information sharing.
a. One big reason employees fail to express concerns at work is that they don’t feel
psychologically safe revealing their views.
3. Trusting groups are more effective.
a. When a leader sets a trusting tone in a group, members are more willing to help
each other and exert extra effort, which further increases trust.
4. Trust enhances productivity.
a. The bottom-line interest of companies also appears positively influenced by trust.
Employees who trust their supervisors tend to receive higher performance ratings.
C. Trust Development
1. Trust isn’t just about the leader; the characteristics of the followers will also influence
the development of trust.
2. What key characteristics lead us to believe a leader is trustworthy? Evidence has
identified three: integrity, benevolence, and ability. (Exhibit 12-6)
D. Trust Propensity
1. Trust propensity refers to how likely a particular employee is to trust a leader. Some
people are simply more likely to believe others can be trusted.
E. Trust and Culture
1. Does trust look the same in every culture? Using the basic definition of trust,
certainly it does. However, in the work context, trust in an employment relationship
may be built on very different perceptions from culture to culture.
2. In individualistic societies, we might expect that paternalistic leadership will rankle
many employees who prefer not to see themselves as part of a hierarchical family
workgroup.
F. The Role of Time
1. Time is the final ingredient in the recipe for trust. Trust doesn’t happen immediately:
we come to trust people based on observing their behavior over a period of time.
2. Trust can also be won in the ability domain simply by demonstrating competence.
G. Regaining Trust
task performance.
2. Leaders who betray trust are especially likely to be evaluated negatively by followers
if there is already a low level of leader–member exchange.
3. Once it has been violated, trust can be regained, but only in certain situations and
depending on the type of violation.
should have done better.
b. When lack of integrity is the problem, apologies don’t do much good.
4. Regardless of the violation, saying nothing or refusing to confirm or deny guilt is
never an effective strategy for regaining trust.
5. Trust can be restored when we observe a consistent pattern of trustworthy behavior by
H. Mentoring
1. A mentor is a senior employee who sponsors and supports a less-experienced
employee (a protégé).
2. Successful mentors are good teachers. (Exhibit 12-7)
3. The protégé will often be tested with a particularly challenging assignment.
A. Introduction
1. Much of an organization’s success or failure is due to factors outside the influence of
leadership. In many cases, success or failure is just a matter of being in the right or
wrong place at a given time.
B. Leadership as an Attribution
make sense of cause-and-effect relationships.
2. The attribution theory of leadership says leadership is merely an attribution people
make about other individuals.
3. Attribution theory suggests what’s important is projecting the appearance of being a
leader rather than focusing on actual accomplishments.
whatever actions leaders exhibit are irrelevant.
2. Experience and training are among the substitutes that can replace the need for a
leader’s support or ability to create structure.
3. Neutralizers make it impossible for leader behavior to make any difference to
follower outcomes.
D. Selecting Leaders
1. The entire process that organizations go through to fill management positions is
essentially an exercise in trying to identify individuals who will be effective leaders.
2. Items of consideration during selection include:
a. Reviewing the specific requirements for the position such as knowledge, skills,
conscientiousness, and openness to experience.
c. High self-monitors are better at reading situations and adjusting their behavior
accordingly.
d. Candidates with high emotional intelligence should have an advantage, especially
in situations requiring transformational leadership.
experience is relevant.
f. Since nothing lasts forever, the most important event an organization needs to
plan for is a change in leadership.
3. Some organizations seem to spend no time on leadership succession and are surprised
when their picks turn out poorly.
E. Training Leaders
leadership-training budgets:
a. Leadership training is likely to be more successful with individuals who are high
self-monitors than with low self-monitors.
b. Second, organizations can teach implementation skills.
c. We also can teach skills such as trust building, mentoring, and situational-analysis
skills.
bottom-line results.
V. Summary and Implications for Managers
A. Leadership plays a central part in understanding group behavior, because it’s the leader
who usually directs us toward our goals.
B. Knowing what makes a good leader should thus be valuable in improving group
performance.
personality and leadership.
D. The behavioral approach’s major contribution was narrowing leadership into
task-oriented (initiating structure) and people-oriented (consideration) styles.
E. By considering the situation in which the leader operates, contingency theories promised
to improve on the behavioral approach.
Specific implications for managers are below:
1. For maximum leadership effectiveness, ensure that your preferences on the initiating
structure and consideration dimensions are a match for your work dynamics and
culture.
2. Hire candidates who exhibit transformational leadership qualities and who have
openness, which may indicate leadership readiness.
3. Hire candidates whom you believe are ethical and trustworthy for management roles
and train current managers in your organization’s ethical standards to increase
leadership effectiveness and reduce abusive supervision.
4. Seek to develop trusting relationships with followers, because, as organizations have
rules in defining expectations and relationships.
5. Consider investing in leadership training such as formal courses, workshops, rotating
job responsibilities, coaching, and mentoring.
EXPANDED CHAPTER OUTLINE
I. Trait Theories
A. Strong Leaders
found leaders that scored very high on assertiveness were less effective than those
who were moderately high.
b. Unlike agreeableness and emotional stability, conscientiousness and openness to
experience also showed strong relationships to leadership, though not quite as
strong as extraversion.
traits in common.
a. One reason is that conscientiousness and extraversion are positively related to
leaders’ self-efficacy, which explained most of the variance in subordinates’
ratings of leader performance.
b. People are more likely to follow someone who is confident she’s going in the
right direction.
discussed in Chapter 4.
a. A core component of EI is empathy.
b. A leader who effectively displays and manages emotions will find it easier to
influence the feelings of followers, by both expressing genuine sympathy and
enthusiasm for good performance and by using irritation for those who fail to
perform.
as leaders, even after taking cognitive ability and personality into account.
6. Based on the latest findings, we offer two conclusions.
a. First, we can say that traits can predict leadership.
b. Second, traits do a better job predicting the emergence of leaders than they do at
distinguishing between effective and ineffective leaders.
i. The fact that an individual exhibits the traits and that others consider him or
her a leader does not necessarily mean he or she will be an effective one.
II. Behavioral Theories
A. Introduction
1. Behavioral theories of leadership implied we could train people to be leaders.
B. Ohio State Studies
1. The most comprehensive theories resulted from the Ohio State Studies in the late
1940s, which sought to identify independent dimensions of leader behavior.
2. Beginning with more than a thousand dimensions, the studies narrowed the list to two
that substantially accounted for most of the leadership behavior described by
employees: initiating structure and consideration.
3. Initiating structure is the extent to which a leader defines and structures his or her
role and those of the subordinates to facilitate goal attainment.
a. It includes behavior that attempts to organize work, work relationships, and goals.
b. A leader high in initiating structure is someone who “assigns group members to
particular tasks,” “expects workers to maintain definite standards of
performance,” and “emphasizes the meeting of deadlines.”
4. Consideration is the extent to which a leader has job relationships that are
characterized by mutual trust, respect for employees’ ideas, and regard for their
feelings.
a. A leader high in consideration helps employees with personal problems, is
friendly and approachable, treats all employees as equals, and expresses
appreciation and support.
b. In a recent survey, when asked to indicate what most motivated them at work, 66
percent of employees mentioned appreciation.
5. The results of behavioral theory studies have been fairly positive.
a. For example, one review found the followers of leaders high in consideration
(and, to a lesser degree, initiating structure) were more satisfied with their jobs,
were more motivated, and had more respect for their leaders.
b. Furthermore, both consideration and initiating structure were found to be
moderately related to leader and group performance along with ratings of leader
effectiveness.
C. GLOBE Study
preference for initiating structure and consideration.
a. The study found that leaders high in consideration succeeded best in countries
where cultural values did not favor unilateral decision making, such as Brazil.
b. In contrast, the French have a more bureaucratic view of leaders and are less
likely to expect them to be humane and considerate. A leader high in initiating
relatively autocratic manner.
D. Summary of Trait Theories and Behavioral Theories
1. In general, research indicates there is validity for both the trait and behavioral
theories. Parts of each theory can help explain facets of leadership emergence and
effectiveness.
a certain outcome.
b. The second is in exploring which combinations of traits and behaviors yield
certain outcomes.
c. The third challenge is to determine the causality of traits to behaviors so that
predictions toward desirable leadership outcomes can be made.
III. Contingency Theories
A. Introduction
1. Some leaders seem successful in difficult times, but tend to be dismissed when the
environment improves.
2. Situational factors that influence success or failure need to be explored further.
B. Fiedler Model
1. Introduction
gives control to the leader.
2. Identifying leadership style
a. Fiedler believed that a key factor in leadership success is the individual’s basic
leadership style. He created the least preferred coworker (LPC) questionnaire
for this purpose.
members have in their leader.
ii. Task structure—the degree to which the job assignments are regimented.
iii. Position power—the degree of influence a leader has over power variables
such as hiring, firing, discipline, promotions, and salary increases.
c. The Fiedler model proposes matching them up to achieve maximum leadership
effectiveness.
situation, task-oriented leaders perform better.
f. Relationship-oriented leaders, however, perform better in moderately favorable
situations—categories IV, V, and VI.
g. Evaluation of Fiedler
i. There are problems and the practical use of the model that need to be
addressed.
3. Situational leadership theory
readiness.
(i) If followers are unable and unwilling to do a task, the leader needs to
give clear and specific directions.
(ii) If they are unable and willing, the leader needs to display high task
supportive and participative style.
(iv) If they are both able and willing, the leader doesn’t need to do much.
iii. SLT has an intuitive appeal. Yet, research efforts to test and support the theory
have generally been disappointing.
4. Path-goal theory
a. The theory
developed by Robert House.
ii. It is a contingency model of leadership that extracts key elements from the
Ohio State leadership research on initiating structure and consideration and
the expectancy theory of motivation.
iii. It is the leader’s job to assist followers in attaining their goals and to provide
analysis of the situation. It predicts the following:
(a) Directive leadership yields greater satisfaction when tasks are ambiguous
or stressful than when they are highly structured and well laid out.
(b) Supportive leadership results in high performance and satisfaction when
employees are performing structured tasks.
perspective.
d. Also like SLT, the theory can be only cautiously adopted for application, but it is a
useful framework in examining the vital role of leadership
5. Leader-participation model
a. The final contingency theory we cover argues that the way the leader makes
decision making.
c. Like path-goal theory, it says leader behavior must adjust to reflect the task
structure.
d. As one leadership scholar noted, “Leaders do not exist in a vacuum”; leadership is
a symbiotic relationship between leaders and followers.
IV. Contemporary Theories of Leadership
that relationship is relatively stable over time.
1. How the leader chooses who falls into each category is unclear?
2. The leader does the choosing on the basis of the follower’s characteristics.
3. In groups have similar characteristics. (Exhibit 12-2)
differentiate among followers.
E. Research to test LMX theory has been generally supportive, with substantive evidence
that leaders do differentiate among followers.
1. These disparities are far from random; and followers with in-group status will have
higher performance ratings, engage in more helping or “citizenship” behaviors at
greater satisfaction with their superior.
2. One study conducted in an entrepreneurial firm in southeast China found LMX is
related to creative and innovative behavior..
3. Recent research has also clarified how LMX changes over time, what happens when
there is more than one leader supervising an employee, and whether the effects of
LMX spreads outside of the workplace.