35. Fighting for Equal Opportunity: Women’s Changing Roles in the U.S. Military
Baldwin et al v Panetta et al and Hegar et al v Panetta
In May 2012, two female Army Reservists, Sergeant Major Jane P. Baldwin and
Colonel Ellen L. Haring, sued the Department of Defense and the United States Army
in Federal Court.
They contend that women have been serving in combat in Iraq and Afghanistan, with
the military circumventing its own regulations by “attaching” women to combat units
instead of “assigning” them. The practical implications are not keeping women out
of harm’s way, but are keeping them from high prestige and high promotion combat
arms assignments. The plaintiffs argue that this policy based only on gender violates
equal protection under the law and is unconstitutional as it restricts their opportunities
for career advancement, higher earnings and pensions (Associated Press, 2012 a; The
New York Times, 2012).
On November 27, 2012 the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) filed a lawsuit
on behalf of female officers and NCOs against Defense Secretary Leon Panetta
arguing that the ban on women in ground combat units was unconstitutional, outdated
and ineffective. The plaintiffs included Major Mary Jennings Hegar of the California
Air National Guard who was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross with Valor and
Purple Heart after her helicopter was shot down in Afghanistan; Marine Captain
Alexandra Zoe Bedell who commanded female engagement teams with ground
combat units in Afghanistan; Marine Lieutenant Colleen Farrell who served in
engagement teams in combat in Afghanistan; and Staff Sergeant Jennifer Hunt a civil
affairs specialist in the Army Reserves.
(Beard, 2012; Dao, 2012b; Doyle, 2012; Hlad, 2012).
Postscript: In January 2013, the Department of Defense instituted an administrative
order requiring the branches to submit integration plans to end automatic ground
combat exclusions for women. These plans included identification and justification for
occupations and jobs to remain excluded as well as when and how women could apply
for combat jobs, and under what standards. As of the publication of this
Volume, these suits remained in effect, most likely until it is clear that the
implementation will provide women full opportunities for equal participation. The
role of these lawsuits in encouraging movement towards change will continue to be
an important point of discussion and debate regarding this issue.
35. Fighting for Equal Opportunity: Women’s Changing Roles in the U.S. Military
VI. Mechanisms for Exclusion continued
D. Family factors
1. Women in military less likely than male counterparts (48% versus
58%) to be married, but similar to the marriage rate of their age
and gender of the overall population (46%)
2. Almost half (48%) of married women are married to another
service member (versus 7% of military men), exacerbating career
and deployment pressures on family for military women
3. 12% of female service members are single parents (4% of men)
4. More than 100,000 service members deployed to Iraq and
Afghanistan, about half, are mothers
5. Among deployed mothers, most were the primary caregivers and
one third single mothers
6. Family issues have a disproportionately negative impact on
opportunities for women
7. Female and male veterans experience family problems at similar
levels (50% and 48% respectively) after leaving the military
V. Conclusion
A. Substantial progress by women in the military since early 1970s
1. Changing social norms and institutional mechanisms
2. Positive performance of women in the military
3. End “Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell”
B Many obstacles for women in the military remain
1. Women are only 14.5% of the military
2. Women are even less well represented in higher ranks
35. Fighting for Equal Opportunity: Women’s Changing Roles in the U.S. Military
3. Women have been excluded from high prestige and high promotion
assignments though “attached” to these same units in combat,
(though the January 2013 administrative order shows promise)
4. Masculine culture militates against women
5. Military unable to stop rampant sexual harassment and assault
6. Lack of family support and flexibility constitute further barriers
C. Complex and ambiguous relationship between women and the military has
made it one of the last and most important remaining battlegrounds for
gender equality in U.S. society
1. Progress made, but substantial barriers to overcome
2. Mechanisms enhancing equality primarily from outside
3. Pervasive obstacles are primarily within the military
4. Evidence that pressure has to come from outside
5. Because of its institutional and symbolic importance in this battle, it
cannot be left unattended by those committed to fuller gender
equality
Teaching Tip
Because notions of masculinity and the military are so deeply ingrained in society, it
might be helpful to walk students through other barriers to women or racial minorities
that existed previously but that we would consider ridiculous today. For instance, a U.S.
Army War College Study published in 1925 claimed that African Americans were
physically, mentally and morally unfit for combat. Until the 1960s, it was illegal for
women to run marathons as it was considered to be physically unhealthy for them.
Women were barred from being in police and fire departments, allegedly because they
lacked the qualifications, until legal action forced those departments to validate their
bona fides occupational qualifications (BFOQ), after which women were able to serve.
Discussion Questions and Answers
1. Why might gender be a particularly important issue in government
organizations like the military?
to others of how they should behave. They are accountable to citizens. The
35. Fighting for Equal Opportunity: Women’s Changing Roles in the U.S. Military
IV – 44
military plays an important role in the nation’s past and present. It accounts for
2. How is the military similar to, or different from, other institutions and
organizations in regard to structure and culture?
The military has often been considered what Ervin Goffman referred to as a
behavior. For instance, adultery is a violation of military law.
been considered to be synonymous with meeting citizenship responsibilities.
3. What factors enhance progress for women in the military?
Perhaps the most important factor is the changing role of women in our society.
Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 made it illegal to discriminate against
women. That has become a deeply accepted value that has an effect on the
35. Fighting for Equal Opportunity: Women’s Changing Roles in the U.S. Military
Women today earn 60% of bachelor and master degrees and a majority of PhDs.
year olds meeting the requirements for service, qualified women are essential.
Women have proven themselves over and over since joining the military. There
Finally, the end of “don’t ask, don’t tell” had a positive effect for several reasons.
roles and behaviors.
4. What factors inhibit progress for women in the military?
There is a strong masculine culture in the military, creating a deeply ingrained
Partially as a result of this perspective, until 2013, women were not allowed to
In almost any endeavor, individuals are most successful in a safe and healthy
work environment. The military is no different. Unfortunately, women are much
35. Fighting for Equal Opportunity: Women’s Changing Roles in the U.S. Military
IV – 46
of it. This is even more perplexing given the “total institution” aspects of the
military.
The military is a highly demanding environment that puts strains on all family
more likely to be single parents and/or married to a military spouse.
5. Why is the issue of harassment and assault of women in the military
different from harassment and assault in civilian life?
As noted earlier, the military is a “total institution” and controls the lives of its
from those outside of the military.
6. Why might it be more difficult to reduce harassment and assault of women
in the military than it is in civilian life?
Given that the military culture is highly masculine and perpetuates the notion that
services.
7. How might the end of the automatic ground combat exclusion affect
opportunities for women in the military?
35. Fighting for Equal Opportunity: Women’s Changing Roles in the U.S. Military
IV – 47
good news even for those who simply believe that everyone should have an equal
opportunity. The challenge will be when and how the policy is implemented.
The services were given until May 15, 2013 to submit their integration plans, as
well as to identify occupations and jobs that will continue to exclude women.
departments.
Another challenge will be the ongoing culture of “hegemonic masculinity” within
predators to think twice.
35. Fighting for Equal Opportunity: Women’s Changing Roles in the U.S. Military
Diversity on the Web
There are a number of very good sources regarding the challenges facing women in the
military. Four of the most informative are listed below. Review each of these and
identify at least one significant challenge that is an obstacle for women in the military.
Identify one potential solution that addresses that problem.
• Women in the Services at http://dacowits.defense.gov
• Department of Defense Sexual Assault Prevention and Response Office
(SAPRO) at http://www.sapr.mil
• The PEW Center report on women in the military at
http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2011/12/22/women–in-the-u-s-military-
growing-share-distinctive-profile/
• The New York Times series on “Women at Arms” at
http://topics.nytimes.com/topics/news/us/series/women_at_arms/index.html
Writing Assignment
The Marine Corps has had the lowest participation rate for female service members
of all of the branches of the armed forces. As Marine Corps Commandant General
James G. Amos stated, “Change doesn’t come easy to the United States Marine
Corps.” Nevertheless, with pressure growing to acknowledge the contributions that
female Marines have made to the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, Amos initiated an
experiment allowing two female officers to attend the Marine Corps Infantry Officer
Basic Course in September and 45 female officers and non-commissioned officers to
be permanently assigned to combat engineer, artillery and tank battalions for the first
time. “I need to get past hyperbole and get past intuition and instincts, and I need to
get facts,” Amos said (Baldor, 2012).
The two female Marines who volunteered for the Marine Corps Infantry Officer
Basic Course failed to meet the upper body strength standards. While some saw this
as evidence that women are not qualified for combat assignments (O’Hanlon, 2012),
others considered this to be evidence of arbitrary and capricious standards not related
to the job requirements that biased selection in favor of men over women (Holland,
2012) in spite of evidence that female Marines attached to combat units met or
exceeded the physical standards (Bumiller, 2010a; 2010b).
35. Fighting for Equal Opportunity: Women’s Changing Roles in the U.S. Military
Read through the following news articles on this issue and write a two page paper
addressing the following issues, as well as any others you think are important to these
questions:
• Are the Marines upholding bona fide occupational qualifications
(BFOQs) necessary for effective combat services? Why or why not?
• Does this “test” meet the standard that General Amos set of getting
“past intuition and instinct… to get facts?” Why or why not? What
else might be required in order to do that?
Be sure to use evidence from the news sources cited below and/or other references
in making your argument.
Starting Sources:
Holland, D.S. (2012, November 19). Women marines need endurance more than
strength. The Wall Street Journal.
O’Hanlon, M. (2012, November 13). A challenge for female marines; The grueling
infantry office course was too much for the women who volunteered. The Wall
Street Journal.
Bumiller, E. (2010 a, May 29). In camouflage or veil, a fragile bond. The New York
Times.
Bumiller, E. (2010 b, October 2). For female marines, tea comes with bullets.
The New York Times.
36. Choosing the Board: Charting the Course with Competing Priorities
IV – 50
CHOOSING THE BOARD:
CHARTING THE COURSE WITH COMPETING PRIORITIES
M. June Allard
Assumption College
Worcester State University, Professor Emerita
Teaching Tips
This exercise might be conducted at any time during the semester or term to point out
how many dimensions of diversity can compete with each other. It may be used in a
online, hybrid, or traditional classroom setting.
Point out that the decisions to be made and the problems faced in choosing the board are
the same as those when choosing members of a very important committee or panel or
team.
Additional (optional) assignments included at the end of these instructions are:
Additional Assignment 1: Optional Diversity Analysis of student diversity ratings
Provides a chart to examine diversity patterns in student diversity ratings
Additional Assignment 2: Strategic Plan Goals 2-7
Introduces consideration of remaining six Strategic Plan goals using a
student-completed chart to make potential impact ratings
Additional Assignment 3: Consequences of Diversifying
Examines the consequences of the choices made for appointments to the
Board
PART ONE: Diversification of the Board Assignment (from the text)
Pre Class Instructions
Assign the Diversity Exercise in the text to be completed individually before class.
Options: The answers to the Exercise (i.e., the ratings students make) can either be
treated as a written assignment followed by class discussion or simply as class discussion.
36. Choosing the Board: Charting the Course with Competing Priorities
IV – 51
Instructions
Goal 1: Diversifying the Board. There are eight nominees for the four vacant Board
seats. Read their descriptions and rank order them from highest to lowest (with one being
the highest) in terms of their suitability for joining the Board. Explain why you rank them
this way.
Diversity Choices
The selection problem posed in this exercise reflects the multiple criteria for choosing
Board members that often exist for both public and private boards and for important
teams and committees in organizations. Student ranks will differ as will their reasons for
making them. Stress that there are no “correct” or “incorrect” ranks. There are many
reasons for assigning particular ranks.
The first four nominees on students’ ranked lists reflect their best choices for the four
Board seats. Before discussing the ranks assigned to the candidates, however, consider
reviewing with the students which aspect(s) of diversity each nominee would bring to the
Board. Consider for example:
II. Drake Covington II
• Diversity characteristic: age
• His skills might help the hospital and he would probably be more acceptable to
the existing Board than another young “outsider” since his uncle is on the
Board. His personality, however, might work against him and be divisive on
the Board.
Layla Amini
• Diversity characteristics: age, gender, ethnicity
• Her age, gender, and ethnicity may work against her in the eyes of the Board.
Her traditional and conservative views would likely be compatible with the
Board, but supporting old Board policies likely will not help the hospital. Her
influential political tie might help the hospital, but also might be resented by
Board members who may feel they “earned” their places on the Board and
resent political pressure being used to gain a seat.
Carmen Diaz
• Diversity characteristics: age, gender, ethnicity
• Her initiative may aid the hospital in finding and implementing solutions, but
may not necessarily be appreciated by current Board members.
36. Choosing the Board: Charting the Course with Competing Priorities
Charles Wong
• Diversity characteristics: age, ethnicity
• His management expertise may be just what the hospital needs and his
“team player” approach should ease his acceptance by the Board. His
Union ties could affect the tenor of the Board however, which may fear or
resent union involvement on one hand or on the other, welcome an avenue
of direct contact with the union. Mr. Wong’s first name suggests some
“Americanization,” so he may be only partially Chinese or perhaps American–
born of Chinese ancestry. Also, note that he works out of his home which is
near the hospital. This suggests the possibility that the hospital might be
located within or adjacent to a Chinese community in which case it could make
good public relations to appoint someone from the local community.
Peter Skylar
• Diversity characteristics: none obvious
• He has knowledge that could aid the hospital. His ties to the regulatory agency
may be useful to the hospital, but may also be greeted with suspicion or even
resented by Board members. His individualistic style will likely not make it
easy for him to “fit” into the Board.
Sue Novenski
• Diversity characteristics: gender, social class
• Her personal collaborative style may well endear her to the Board. Her
(presumed) lack of wealth could be embarrassing for her if she can’t make
large financial contributions to the hospital and could also increase a tendency
for the older wealthy Board members to not take her very seriously.
Katherine Dobbs Courtney
• Diversity characteristics: gender, social class
• She is “one of them” – she is likely around the same age, is wealthy, and her
husband served on the Board. Of all the female nominees, she is probably the
most acceptable to (within the comfort zone of) the Board. She is, however, an
outspoken loner, so her style may help the hospital, but may not be pleasing to
the Board.
Lamarr Leroy Woods
• Diversity characteristic: race
• His conservative approach, socio-economic level, and personality could mesh
well with the character of the current Board but may not provide the change
needed to help the hospital.
36. Choosing the Board: Charting the Course with Competing Priorities
Discussion Notes
After discussing the pros and cons of each nominee, examine the rankings made by the
class. One way to determine how much consensus exists is to tally the number of times
each nominee appears in the top four ranks assigned by class members.
How important is it to diversify the Board? Selection of any four of the eight
nominees will automatically provide some diversity, e.g., if only the four oldest
nominees were chosen, then some gender and ethnic diversity will occur; if only the
four males were chosen, then some age and some work style diversity will occur.
Some students may think “outside the box” and suggest increasing the Board size or
placing four nominees on the Board and hiring some or all of the others as
consultants to get the hospital past the management and fiscal crises, to satisfy public
demands for diversifying, and/or to satisfy the various political influences impinging
upon the hospital.
Appearances can be deceiving. It might be pointed out that on the surface a Board
nominee might appear to be selected for one reason when in fact the real reason is
quite different. Consider Drake Covington II, for example. He might seem to be
chosen because of the influence of his uncle, when in fact, it could be because he
might be able to provide some desperately needed skills and/or possibly unusual new
approaches.
The reasons why certain nominees were top-rated leads to a discussion of the factors
or criteria that might be used to make the choices. Such factors include:
Age. The current Board is described as industrialists “who have
known each other for years.” By implication, the Board members are
senior in age. Placing younger members on the Board would diversify
it in terms of age and provide contrasting perspectives. However, the
down side is that one much younger person would create a minority
situation and potentially an intimidating one while several younger Board
members could create a young vs. old division.
36. Choosing the Board: Charting the Course with Competing Priorities
IV – 54
Gender. The current Board is all male. Adding a female(s) would
provide some gender diversity. Ask students what might happen if just
one woman were added. Would it matter which woman, i.e., whether
that woman were Sue Novenski, Layla Amini, Carmen Diaz, or Katherine Dobbs
Courtney? Why?
Ethnicity. Nothing is stated about the ethnicity of the current Board.
It is likely that since all members are upper class industrialists, most if
not all, are white and possibly Euro-white. From their names, it appears
that several of the nominees might be identifiable ethnically, however. In
particular, note that some of the nominees may be ethnically mixed, such
as Charles Wong and Sue Novenski, who have Anglo first names and
ethnic last names while other nominees have completely Anglo or ethnic
names. Should some or all four nominees with ethnic names be added to
the Board to provide ethnic diversity?
Social Class. Current Board members are all upper class, but not all of
the nominees appear to be. While diversifying the Board in socio-economic
terms may be desirable, there are potential problems. First and foremost,
governing Boards have fiscal responsibility for their institutions and this could
create an awkward and embarrassing situation for some new members. Many
people are not familiar with financial statements such as balance sheets and
income statements and are totally lost when faced with them. Financial reports
are so much a part of Board decision-making that knowing how to interpret them
is vital. A further problem is that placing less affluent members on nonprofit and
community Boards could be embarrassing to them if they cannot make the
substantial contributions to the organization that other Board members can make
and that may be expected.
Political Influence. Nominees were put forth by different sources. Each of
these sources represents a form or source of stakeholder influence that
could affect the hospital’s future. Should political influence be a factor in
selection? If so, to what extent? Why?
Conservatism and Personal Style. Current Board members are all
conservative. Unfortunately, their policies have not been effective in
ameliorating the present financial and managerial situation and may have abetted
it or even created it, so it can be argued that changes in policies and actions are
urgently needed. Some of the nominees are team players and conciliatory in
nature and likely could do much toward making the “new” Board function
smoothly. On the other hand, some very major (even radical) changes in fiscal
and managerial policies are needed to put the hospital on a sound basis.
Seemingly, the innovators, idea people, and self-starters among the nominees
might be just the people to introduce new policies and put the hospital back on
track.
36. Choosing the Board: Charting the Course with Competing Priorities
Expertise. The hospital clearly needs financial and managerial expertise. Some
nominees appear to have such expertise. Should they be on the Board for this
reason alone, or should consultants be hired for financial and managerial
expertise and new Board members selected for other reasons?
Writing Assignment
Regardless of which four nominees are appointed, replacing one-third of the Board
members all at once will mean a radical change for this board. This is a source of
concern for the Board members and a serious concern of the hospital CEO who deals
frequently with the Board. What might be done to ease the transition for the Board
itself and for the CEO?
Teaching Tips for Writing Assignment
To ease the transition, some “adjustment techniques” that students might name include:
Board Techniques. A mentoring system pairing new and old Board members;
a session with hospital financial staff to explain financial statements; an
orientation to all aspects of hospital operations and management; a
hospital tour; a cocktail party or social event to introduce new members
socially in a non-business setting with old Board members personally
inviting new members; mixed committees of old and new members; etc.
are possibilities. For less affluent members, professional expertise or
skill may be substituted for monetary donations without embarrassment
for such members and this needs to be stressed to them.
Hospital CEO Techniques. One-on-one get-acquainted luncheons with each
new member and some form of orientation by the CEO for new members,
etc. are among the possibilities. Techniques or events that increase the out–of–
Board-meeting contact between the CEO and the new members are needed.
36. Choosing the Board: Charting the Course with Competing Priorities
IV – 56
Additional Assignment 1: Diversity Analysis
This exercise does not appear in the text.
Give students the Diversity Handout on the following page of this manual and instruct
them to complete Assignment questions A thru E independently. Summarize the
discussion of nominees and the reasons for their selection by discussing student responses
to questions A through D on the handout.
A. What patterns emerge in your choices? Were all of your choices the same on any
dimension(s)? Explain.
B. How diversified would you say your choices are? Did you consciously or
unconsciously make choices on the basis of any particular dimension of
diversity? Explain.
C. If all four of your choices were selected for the Board, how diversified could
your complete Board be?
D. The Diversity chart above tallies multiple facets of diversity, making it easier to
compare nominees. Are there other diversity characteristics that might also be
considered? Explain.
E. What problems can you foresee with the diversity (or lack of diversity) on your
new (complete) Board?
small segment of the hospital’s and the community’s stakeholders.
36. Choosing the Board: Charting the Course with Competing Priorities
Diversity Handout
Diversity Analysis
On the chart below, draw a line completely around each of your TOP FOUR nominees
and their characteristics (or highlight the entire line of information) that you chose to join
the Board.
Diversity Chart
……………………… Style Mi– nonMi- Age
. Gender Team Individ. nority . nority . 20s 30s 40s 50s
.
Drake Covington II Male X X 20s
Charles Wong Male X X 30s
Peter Skylar Male X X 40s
Lamarr Leroy Woods Male X X 50s.
Layla Amini Female X X 20s
Carmen Diaz Female X X 30s
Sue Novenski Female X X 40s
Katherine Dobbs Courtney Female X X 50s
………………………………………………………………………………
A. What patterns emerge in your choices? Were all of your choices the same on any
dimension(s)? Explain.
B. How diversified would you say your choices are? Did you consciously or
unconsciously make choices on the basis of any particular dimension of diversity?
Explain.
C. If all four of your choices were selected for the Board, how diversified could your
complete Board be?
D. The Diversity Chart above summarizes multiple facets of diversity, making it easier
to compare nominees. Are there other diversity characteristics that might also be
considered? Explain.
E. What problems can you foresee with the diversity (or lack of diversity) on your new
(complete) Board?
36. Choosing the Board: Charting the Course with Competing Priorities
Additional Assignment 2: Strategic Plan Goals 2 – 7
This assignment/exercise is not in the text.
Diversifying the Board is only one of the goals of the Strategic Plan. There are six (6)
additional goals to be considered in selecting new Board members. Strong consideration
must be given to the skills, experience, and other requirements needed to help implement
these goals.
Give students the Potential Impact Chart (handout) on the next page. The columns in this
chart correspond to Strategic Plan Goals Numbers 2 through 7.
Teaching Tip
It should be stressed that sometimes you have to pass over considerations of diversity in
order to get essential or critical skills for the job/position/project.
After students have rated each nominee, give them the Predicted Impact Handout and
instruct them to transfer their rating to this summary chart.
Strategic Plan Goals Numbers 2 through 7
2. Improved fiscal reporting and management
3. Improved morale within the hospital
4. Increased communication between the Board and the hospital staff
5. Closer relationships between the hospital and the outside community
6. Closer relationships between the hospital and regulatory and funding
agencies
7. Improved relationships within the Board