SECTION IV
UNDERSTANDING THE SECONDARY DIMENSIONS OF DIVERSITY:
SOCIAL CLASS, RELIGION, APPEARANCE/ WEIGHT,
LANGUAGE/COMMUNICATION AND MILITARY SERVICE
29. Does Social Class Make A Difference?
DOES SOCIAL CLASS MAKE A DIFFERENCE?
Carol P. Harvey
Assumption College
Goals
• To increase student awareness of the longitudinal effects of social class in the
development of individual workers
• To examine the differences in access to resources that are common to individuals
from different class groups
• To provide an opportunity for students to reexamine the notion of living in an
egalitarian society where “everyone” has equal access to resources and
opportunities
Instructions
Before beginning this exercise, stress that individuals within a social class may have very
different experiences due to a variety of factors. The intention of the exercise is not to
stereotype but rather to examine the benefits and privileges that social class can bring to a
person’s development as a worker. The exercise instructions clearly say to complete the
columns with examples of the more common experience for the child born into these
social classes.
Time Required
The time required varies according to how the students are instructed to complete this
exercise but it can be done in 20-30 minutes depending on the level of discussion. There
are two options:
1. If time is very limited, or if you are teaching on the web, you can assign
all students to complete the two columns prior to the class discussion.
2. If there is enough time, it is preferable to assign groups of 5-6 students in
class to discuss and develop a set of answers for one of the boys. To save
some time, you can assign half of the room to complete the column that
applies to Justin and the other half of the room the columns that pertain to
Clark.
29. Does Social Class Make A Difference?
After students have completed the columns, have them give answers for each of the
items. For example, have group #1 tell the class how Justin is apt to spend his time before
he attends school. The answers usually include “watching television, playing with
children in the neighborhood,” etc.
Next, turn to the other group that has worked on Clark’s column and ask the same
question. Even with the first question, the answers usually vary dramatically. Clark will
probably “attend a pre-school, go to library story hours, or take sports lessons,” etc.
Then, ask the entire class, “Why does this matter?” From the first question, the
differences in access and resources begin to surface.
As you continue down the list, it becomes clear that a child born into Clark’s social
situation has clear developmental and educational privileges. These can translate into
workplace advantages due to the availability of more options and resources. The last
question about life and career skills usually produces some interesting answers in terms
of the awareness that the Justins, who do become successful in the workplace, may have
had to work a lot harder to get where they are than do the Clarks.
Discussion Questions and Answers
1. In terms of the workplace, how does social class matter?
2. Is social class really an invisible difference or are there ways that people often
deduce other’s social class origins? What can be the effect of this in job
interviews, work-related social situations, etc.?
29. Does Social Class Make A Difference?
IV – 4
Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
How one acts in social situations may alter the perceptions of others. For example,
one’s table manners at a business lunch, how one speaks, etc., may affect a
customer’s, boss, or co–worker’s perceptions about an individual’s work ability.
3. What role does the media play in perpetuating both positive and negative social
class stereotypes? Support your answer with examples.
Mass media plays a major role in influencing our perceptions about social class. The
4. In this exercise, both people were male and no specific race was suggested.
Which of your answers might have been different, if the examples were female
or nonwhite? Why?
Adding multiple dimensions of diversity will produce different answers. Students
29. Does Social Class Make A Difference?
Writing Assignments
1. There are many programs and organizations such as Head Start, the Nativity
Schools, Big Brothers and Big Sisters, Boys and Girls Clubs, Girls Inc., among
others, that attempt to help individuals to overcome some of the effects of social
class. Research and visit one of these organizations to better understand their
mission and the roles that they play in providing access and opportunity.
Specifically, how can these organizations change the life experiences and access to
resources for children from lower classes?
2. Spend a day in a school that is the opposite from your own grammar or high school
experience. If you attended a private school, arrange to visit a public school. If you
attended a school that was predominately lower or working class, arrange to visit a
private school. Analyze any differences that you observe in terms of the student
body, how students dress, the academic experience, the faculty, the physical plant,
and athletic and after-school activities. Try to interview students and faculty about
their perceptions of the total educational experience at the school. How does what
you learned from this visit relate to this exercise? How do these differences translate
into “privileges” in the workplace?
30. Social Class: The Fiction of American Meritocracy
SOCIAL CLASS:
THE FICTION OF AMERICAN MERITOCRACY
Colleen A. Fahy
Assumption College
Goals
• To understand what “classism” means and its connection to views on American
meritocracy
• To clarify the popular myths about social class mobility in the United States
• To examine factors such as access to education, home ownership, and gender that
determine one’s social status in the United States
• To explore the connections between socioeconomic status, race, gender, and
access to resources
Outline
I. Introduction
A. Examples of self-made men and women.
1. Oprah Winfrey (impoverished Mississippi to $2.7 billion)
2. Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak (Apple started with $1300)
3. Sonia Sotomayor (South Bronx housing project to US Supreme
Court)
B. Views on Social Mobility
1. 80% of Americans answered yes to “Is it possible to start out poor,
work hard, and become rich?”
2. 78.8% of college freshmen agree that “through hard work,
everybody can succeed in American society”
C. Definition of meritocracy and its link to classism. If people assume social
status is a matter of effort, then the leap can be made that those in the
lower classes simply are not trying hard enough. This, in turn, can lead to
classism.
D. Classism is the negative stereotyping and discrimination of individuals
from lower social classes. Its foundation is the false assumption that
social class standing is simply a matter of effort. The article goes on to
explain all the reasons why those born into privilege get a head start and
extra boosts along the way.
30. Social Class: The Fiction of American Meritocracy
IV – 7
II. Social Class Measurement
A. Measures
1. Income: In 2007, the highest 20% of U.S. households had an
income exceeding $100,000. The lowest quintile fell below
$20,300.
2. Wealth: The top 10% of families have an estimated median net
worth of $1.4 million while the bottom 25% have median net
worth of $1700.
3. Educational Achievement
4. Occupational Prestige: doctors first, school teachers 45th, dish
washers 446th (out of 447)
B. Example: The New York Times’ website shows that a housekeeper with
an 8th grade education making $20,000 per year and holding $5,000 in
net worth is in the 16th percentile of total social class. A surgeon making
$300,000 per year, with a net worth of $1 million is in the 99th percentile.
III. Class in the Workplace
A. Interaction among persons of different social classes will vary by
occupation and industry.
B. In hierarchical settings, individuals are more likely to work closely with
those from other social classes. For example, hospitals have doctors,
nurses, CNAs, and maintenance workers.
C. Classism, which is rooted in the belief in meritocracy, can lead to
negative stereotyping and behaviors within the workplace.
IV. Social Mobility in the U.S.
A. Social class is “sticky.” One study found that 6% of those born into the
lowest income quintile ended up in the highest, while 42% stayed in the
bottom quintile.
B. Class mobility has not increased in recent decades and there is some
evidence it has decreased.
C. The U.S. has a low level of social mobility compared with other
developed countries. A comparison of nine high-income countries found
the U.S. to be second to last in terms of intergenerational mobility.
D. Some correlation between parent and child income is expected. Some
attributes such as ability and motivation can be partially inherited.
However, the high level of correlation indicates that more than genetics
is at work.
30. Social Class: The Fiction of American Meritocracy
IV – 8
V. Education
Equality of education is often cited as the key to social mobility. Children in the
U.S. do not have equal opportunity when it comes to education.
A. Elementary and Secondary Schools
1. Differences in ability by class show up as early as kindergarten.
Explanations include differences in birth weight, health, parental
skills, and stress.
2. The primary funding for schools is the property tax. Poorer
communities will have fewer resources while the children may
be costlier to educate.
B. Post Secondary Education may be lower in quality in lower-income
communities.
1. Education is a measure of social class itself but it also leads to
higher income.
2. In 2003, the income premium for college graduates was 230%.
3. College graduates tend to marry each other. A college-educated
couple would have a median income of $108,000 while a single
high school educated woman would have a median income of
$27,000.
3. A college education is difficult to achieve for low-income
families because they often lack knowledge about how to apply
and pay for college. They are often not as prepared (e.g., quality
of schools, enrichment opportunities) and they have difficulty
paying.
4. In 2005, 53% of children from the highest-income families
attained college degrees while only 11% of those from the
poorest families were able to achieve this goal.
VI. Social and Cultural Capital
A. Social capital is “who you know” and is critical in developing academic
motivation. More directly, personal connections help in job placement
and advancement.
B. Cultural capital is “fitting in” and is accumulated from birth. Knowledge,
values, manners of dress and speech all matter.
C. Social and cultural capital are more attainable for those born into higher
social classes.
30. Social Class: The Fiction of American Meritocracy
IV – 9
D. Cultural capital is particularly important as an identifier of social class in
the workplace. To be seriously considered for positions, individuals must
“fit the part.”
VII. Homeownership and Neighborhood Effects
A. The probability of owning a home increases significantly with income
and wealth.
B. Homeownership is associated with numerous benefits.
1. Primary source of wealth.
2. Can be used to finance a child’s education.
3. Improves home environment including physical condition of the
house, presence of educational materials, self-esteem, and health.
4. Reduces mobility and increases the probability of remaining in
the same school.
5. Home ownership rates are much lower for minorities than for
whites. Much of the difference is due to income differences but
race itself is also a factor. Neighborhoods are still highly
segregated in terms of race.
C. Summary: Those born with less are less likely to live in their own homes.
Mobility hurts educational achievement. Families lose out on an
important source of wealth. Residents of poor neighborhoods lack
funding for public safety, strong educational opportunities, quality social
networks, and role models.
VIII. Race and Gender
A. It is difficult to untangle race and class. Minorities have lower median
incomes and lower average levels of education.
B. However, low income Blacks are twice as likely to remain poor and only
one quarter as likely to move to the highest income quartile. A
significant portion of the income gap between whites and Blacks is
unexplained by factors such as education and occupation. Blacks are
alarmingly more downwardly mobile than whites.
C. Gender and social class are also linked. Women make 75 cents on the
dollar compared to men. There is significant occupational segregation by
gender. Many highly male occupations (like engineering) have higher
prestige rankings than heavily female occupations (like nursing).
30. Social Class: The Fiction of American Meritocracy
IV – 10
D. Jobs may have lower pay/prestige because they are heavily female and/or
women may be funneled into these fields because of the lower
pay/prestige.
E. Social class is intertwined with race and gender but is important in its
own right. A white man born to financial means will face significant
advantages over a white man born into poverty.
IX. Class in the Workplace
A. Workplace practices often reinforce pre-existing social class
stratification.
B. Credentialism (i.e., educational achievement) is often used as a sorting
mechanism for job applicants even when it isn’t relevant.
X. A Multi-Layered Approach to Change
Disadvantages of social class must be challenged at all levels.
A. National Level
1. Increases in minimum wage would help push back the recent
increase in income inequality.
2. The No Child Left Behind Act has increased accountability in
education.
3. Passage of the Universal Health Care bill may result in improved
health coverage for lower social classes.
B. Institutional Changes
1. Improved access to college through such means as SAT-optional
policies and increased recruitment of individuals from lower
income groups.
C. Workplace Changes
1. All qualified persons should be considered for job openings.
Unnecessary education levels and other symbols of social class
(dress and speech patterns, etc.) should not be as heavily weighted.
2. Equalized benefits across social classes. Paid leave and educational
opportunities should not vary by class.
3. Reduced symbols of social class within the workplace such as
executive lunchrooms, reserved parking spaces, and washrooms.
30. Social Class: The Fiction of American Meritocracy
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XI. Summary: Because social class is commonly viewed as something that is
changeable, resulting inequities are often seen as deserved but, like racism and
sexism, classism is based on false assumptions about underlying differences
among groups. Americans need to take a hard look at the way the system really
works in terms of merit and rewards. Only then will the perceptions of the
personal qualities of those of lower status be questioned and discrimination
reduced.
Teaching Tip
America as a meritocracy is a deeply held belief of many students. You may want to
begin the discussion by talking about the relative impacts of luck and work in your
student’s own achievements. Ask if they believe they would be where they are if they had
been born into a different family. Ask them to break into percentages how much of where
they are in terms of education, jobs, etc. is due to the luck of being born into a specific
social class and how much is due to their own efforts.
Discussion Questions and Answers
1. In your own success in achieving a college education, consider the following four
factors: a) your parent’s attitude toward education, b) your parent’s financial
resources, c) the quality of your elementary and secondary schools, and d) your
own hard work and determination.
a) Rank these factors in terms of their importance in your own experience.
b) Choose any three combinations of two factors listed in question 1 (for
example, school quality and student work ethic) and explain why they are
likely to be correlated.
There are six possible combinations of the factors. There are a number of
30. Social Class: The Fiction of American Meritocracy
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Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
mean moving to a good school district, private schooling or taking advantage
of school choices offered in many urban environments. In the other direction,
one measure of school quality is the connection with parents. A good school
can go a long way in improving a parent’s attitude toward education.
c) Parent’s attitudes toward education and a student’s hard work and
determination: Children take their cues from their parents. Children will
often work harder at something if it is important to their parents.
d) Parent’s financial resources and the quality of schools: Parents with greater
financial resources will often use these resources to make sure their children
go to better schools. Good school districts and private schools are options for
some social classes.
2. Suppose a financial services company offered tuition reimbursement to their
employees who work as financial advisors but not to administrative assistants.
Why might a company do this? How do policies such as these reduce class
mobility? Do you believe such policies are fair?
To the question of why a company might do this, there are a number of possibilities.
30. Social Class: The Fiction of American Meritocracy
IV – 13
3. After reading the article, do you agree with the statement, “Through hard work,
everybody can succeed in American society?” If so, try to counter the arguments
given in the article. If not, what do you believe is the biggest obstacle? If you
believe that change is needed, give an example of a government or
organizational policy that you believe would help reduce classism.
Because this is such a widely held belief, many students will remain convinced that
free and that good students come out of even the poorest schools. They may argue
Writing Assignment (not in the text)
Choose one of the following impediments to social mobility:
(1) Access to quality elementary and secondary education
(2) Access to a college education
(3) Ability to own a home in a good neighborhood
(4) Access to social and cultural capital
Explain why the particular opportunity you have chosen differs among social
classes (find evidence beyond what is given in the chapter) and discuss what
can be done to improve access.
Diversity on the Web
31. Religion in the Workplace
IV – 14
RELIGION IN THE U.S. WORKPLACE
Kathleen M. Fisher
Assumption College
Jeanne M. McNett
Northeastern University
Assumption College, Professor Emerita
Pamela D. Sherer
Providence College
Goals
• Build awareness of the historic role of religion in the United States
• Develop awareness of potential contributions and challenges religion brings to
the workplace
• Explore best practices in involving religious diversity in the workplace
Outline of Key Points
I. Introduction
II. Historic role of religion in the United States
A. Indigenous religion
B. 1600s: Colonialist Protestant search for freedom and profit
C. Development of the country and the religious “Great Awakenings”
challenges
D. Northern industrialization, success of Protestant work ethic for
industrialists, while workers were in misery. Rerum Novarum.
E. Growing diversity in immigration to U.S. after WWII
III. Five Main religions in United States
A. Christianity (Protestant, Catholic)
B. Judaism
C. Buddhism
D. Islam
E. Hinduism
31. Religion in the Workplace
IV – 15
IV. Religion in the workplace
A. Contributions to organizational culture
B. Challenges that accompany religion in the workplace
V. Title VII of the U.S. Civil Rights Act of 1964
A. Definition
B. Points of law
C. Reasonable accommodation examples
VI. Best practices for religion in the workplace
VII. Religious diversity checklist
VIII. Summary
Teaching Tips
As with other diversity issues, often majority-religion student awareness of religious
diversity problems is limited. They will report that everything is fine, that there is
tolerance in the workplace. Yet once practices are closely examined, students may begin
to see that there are issues around practices for people who are not members of the
majority religion. Try discussing food and drink at celebrations, what people of other
religions wear to work or what the minority religion calendars are. Working these
conversations inductively will often bring students to a realization on their own that the
outlier is often forced to assert his/her rights in order to have them.
Additional Assignment (not in text)
Research the treatment of the value of work in the five major religions of the United
States.
Writing Assignment
You manage a department of twenty-three employees, many of whom are Christian.
Write a policy that clearly articulates how the organization accommodates requests for
religious holiday leave. Include an explanation of how employees and management will
communicate and resolve scheduling conflicts that may arise as a result of multiple
requests for leave. Explain how you will communicate this policy to your employees.
31. Religion in the Workplace
IV – 16
Discussion Questions and Answers
1. Comment on the general involvement of religion in the U.S. public life, and
particularly in the workplace. If a Puritan religious leader were suddenly to
show up at your most recent job site, how might you explain the issues related to
religion there to him?
2. You are an entrepreneur beginning your first start-up company, and you have
ample seed money. How might you intentionally involve religion in the new
business culture you are about to build?
3. Using the Religious Diversity Checklist, conduct an audit of an organization to
which you have belonged. Once you answer the questions, analyze the answers
and generalize from them to offer the organization advice on its treatment of
religion in the workplace. How would you rate the organization on its
performance on a scale of 1 to 10 (with 10 being excellent)?
4. Discuss the contributions religion might make to an organization for which you
have worked. Then discuss the challenges that the introduction on religious
diversity there might create.
Again, this is an individualized question, so the responses will vary. Here is an
31. Religion in the Workplace
IV – 17
Resources
Videos:
“Marketing the Message: Selling Jesus or Selling Jesus Out?” Films for the Humanities
& Sciences, 2006. http://ffh.films.com/
Program looks at efforts to market the message of the Bible through events such as
NASCAR racing and pro wrestling, Jesus-oriented products such as Bibles styled
like fashion magazines, and religious tourism sites such as The Holy Land
Experience in Orlando.
“Is God Green” (2006). http://www.pbs.org/moyers/moyersonamerica/green/watch.html
Examines the split within evangelical Christianity over whether the Bible contains
a moral imperative to protect the environment from human usage. Explores the
implications of this dispute for American politics and business.
“The Quran, the Bible, and the Torah.” (2004). Films for the Humanities & Sciences,
2004. http://ffh.films.com
Three scholars present their perspectives on the revelatory and inspirational texts of
the three religions of the Book.
“I BELIEVE—with Dennis Wholey.” Films for the Humanities & Sciences, 2007.
http://ffh.films.com
A 26-part series that visits churches, synagogues, mosques, temples, and other
houses of worship to examine the religious diversity in the United States. Series
includes a two-part interfaith roundtable discussion that can be purchased
separately.
“No Rest for the Wicked: Protestantism and Economics.” Films for the Humanities &
Sciences, 2006. http://ffh.films.com
Examines the rise of the Protestant work ethic and the religious foundations of
Western industry; includes segments on John Calvin, colonial leader John
Winthrop, and Benjamin Franklin. Discusses the divisions that arose within
Protestantism over slavery and the excesses of factory labor.
“The Muslims I Know.” Films for the Humanities & Sciences, 2008. http://ffh.films.com
Attempts to dispel stereotypes about Muslim faith and practice through interviews
addressing questions from non-Muslim Americans to Pakistani-born American
citizens.
31. Religion in the Workplace
Websites:
“God in America” www.pbs.org/godinamerica
The Pluralism Project at Harvard University http://pluralism.org/
Includes an extensive list of multimedia resources on religious pluralism.
Nash, Laura. “Can Religion and Business Learn From Each Other?” Working Knowledge,
Harvard Business School. http://hbswk.hbs.edu/item/3511.html
Books:
Nash, Laura and S. McLennan, Church on Sunday, Work on Monday: The Challenge of
Fusing Christian Values with Business Life. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2001.
Points of Law
Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964
Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of l964 prohibits employers from discriminating
against individuals because of their religion in hiring, firing, and other terms
and conditions of employment. Title VII covers employers with 15 or more
employees, including state and local governments, employment agencies and labor
organizations, as well as the federal government.
Under Title VII:
Employers may not treat employees or applicants more or less favorably because
of their religious beliefs or practices – except to the extent a religious
accommodation is warranted. For example, an employer may not refuse to hire
individuals of a certain religion, may not impose stricter promotion requirements for
persons of a certain religion, and may not impose more or different work requirements
on an employee because of that employee’s religious beliefs or practices.
Employees cannot be forced to participate – or not participate – in a religious
activity as a condition of employment.
Employers must reasonably accommodate employees’ sincerely held religious
practices unless doing so would impose an undue hardship on the employer. A
reasonable religious accommodation is any adjustment to the work environment that
will allow the employee to practice his religion. An employer might accommodate an
employee’s religious beliefs or practices by allowing flexible scheduling, voluntary
substitutions or swaps, job reassignments and lateral transfers, modification of
31. Religion in the Workplace
IV – 19
grooming requirements and other workplace practices, policies and/or procedures.
An employer is not required to accommodate an employee’s religious beliefs
and practices if doing so would impose an undue hardship on the employers’
legitimate business interests. An employer can show undue hardship if accommodating
an employee’s religious practices requires more than ordinary administrative costs,
diminishes efficiency in other jobs, infringes on other employees’ job rights or benefits,
impairs workplace safety, causes co-workers to carry the accommodated employee’s
share of potentially hazardous or burdensome work, or if the proposed accommodation
conflicts with another law or regulation.
Employers must permit employees to engage in religious expression, unless the
religious expression would impose an undue hardship on the employer. Generally,
an employer may not place more restrictions on religious expression than on other
forms of expression that have a comparable effect on workplace efficiency.
Employers must take steps to prevent religious harassment of their employees.
An employer can reduce the chance that employees will engage in unlawful religious
harassment by implementing an anti-harassment policy and having an effective
procedure for reporting, investigating and correcting harassing conduct.
It is also unlawful to retaliate against an individual for opposing employment
practices that discriminate based on religion or for filing a discrimination charge,
testifying, or participating in any way in an investigation, proceeding, or litigation
under Title VII.
(adapted from www.eeoc.gov/types/religion.html)
31. Religion in the Workplace
Diversity on the Web
Select a religion that you are unfamiliar with from Table 1 and, using some of
the resources listed below, answer the following questions:
a) What are some of the basic beliefs and practices of the religion you chose?
b) Are there any specific past or current workplace issues that have been raised with
respect to this religion and/or its practices?
c) In general, what strategies can organizations use to educate employees about
religious diversity? Comment on challenges that organizations may face when
addressing the discussion of religious diversity.
The following Internet resources will be helpful in beginning your research.
BBC Religion www.bbc.co.uk/religion/
The Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life http://pewforum.org/
The Pluralism Project at Harvard University www.pluralism.org/resources/links/index.php
Krista Tippett on Being http://being.publicradio.org/
Virtual Religion Index http://virtualreligion.net/vri/
Wabash Center for Teaching and Learning in Theology and Religion Internet Guide to Religion
www.wabashcenter.wabash.edu/resources/guide_headings.aspx