Part 2
Principle: Be True to Thy Brand – and Thy Consumer
Part II of this textbook focuses on how brand communication works, why and how
consumers make the decisions they do, and how a winning strategy – one that reflects
how consumers think and feel – can be developed.
A basic principle is that brands must be true to themselves and to the consumers who buy
them. Regina Lewis explains this principle in her essay entitled “Brands Are Built on
Human Foundation”that follows. In her essay, she outlines five enduring principles to
which she, along with her marketing team and agencies always adhere. These principles
will be explained further in the chapters that make up Part II.
Chapter four answers the big picture question of “How does advertising and other
marketing communication work?” Effectiveness factors are spelled out using the Facets
Model of Effects. Building on that discussion as a foundation, chapter five introduces the
consumer audience and discusses how targeting works. Chapter six introduces the basics
of research used to understand consumers and the marketplace. Finally, chapter seven
explains how an understanding of what makes advertising effective, combined with
insight into how consumers think and behave, come together to develop a strategic plan.
Chapter 4
How Marketing BrandWorks
CHAPTER CONTENT
CHAPTER KEY POINTS
1. How does brand communication work both as a form of mass communication and
interactive communication?
2. How did the idea of advertising effects develop, and what are the problems in
traditional approaches to advertising effects?
3. What is the Facets Model of Advertising Effects, and how does it explain how brand
communication works? What are the key Facets of brand communication
effectiveness?
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
The chapteropens with an explanation of how communication works by first discussing
the SMCR model, and then exploring the impact of interactive communication upon that
model. Next, the effects behind advertising effectiveness are explored. First,two
traditional models, along with their limitations, are discussed. Then a different approach
entitled Moriarty’s Domains model, that eliminates the shortcomings of the traditional
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models is introduced. Each of the six components of Moriarty’s domains model is
outlined in detail. The chapter then closes with a debate between the “Strong Theory”
versus the “Weak Theory” regarding advertising impact.
CHAPTER OUTLINE
HOW DOES BRAND COMMUNICATION WORK?
At its most basic, brand communication is a message to a consumer about a brand.
It gets attention and provides information, and sometimes even entertainment. It
is purposeful in that it seeks to create some kind of response, such as an inquiry, a
sale, a visit to a website, or a test drive.
Most traditional advertising is not as personal or interactive as a conversation
because it relies on mass communication. However, there are other forms of
marketing communication, such as personal selling and telemarketing, can deliver
the personal contact of a conversation.
The Mass Communication Approach
Mass communication is a process, as depicted in the SMCR model in Figure 4.1a.
The process begins with (1) a source, a sender who (2) encodes or puts it in words
and pictures as a (3) message. The message is presented through (4) channels of
communication, such as a newspaper, radio, or TV. The message is then (5)
decoded or interpreted by (6) the receiver, who is the reader, viewer, or listener.
The last step is (7) feedback, which is obtained by monitoring the response of the
receiver to the message. The entire process is complicated by what we refer to as
(8) noise, things that interrupt the sending as well as the receiving of the message.
If the communication process fails to work and the consumer does not receive the
message as intended by the advertiser, then the communication effort is
ineffective. The brand communication model shown in Figure 4.1b describes how
this communication process works.
External noise, which hinders the consumer’s reception of the message, includes
technical and socio-economic trends that affect the reception of the message.
Examples include the economic downturn or changing health trends. Problems
with the brand’s marketing mix can also have impact on the consumer’s response.
External noise can also be related to the advertising media. It can be as simple as
bad broadcast or cell phone reception. A more likely cause of noise is clutter,
which is the multitude of messages all competing to get the consumer’s attention.
Internal noise includes personal factors that affect the reception of an
advertisement, such as the receiver’s needs, language skills, purchase history,
information-processing abilities, and other personal factors. Distraction from
competing brand messages can also be a source of internal noise.
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Feedback is the reaction the audience has to a message. It can be obtained through
research or through customer-initiated contact with the company. Both of these
are important tests of the effectiveness of marketing communication messages.It
is important to remember that this process is not foolproof or even dependable.
Adding Interaction to Marketing Communication
Mass communication is traditionally seen as a one-way process with the message
depicted as moving from the source to the receiver. However, interactive
communication is two-way communication, and marketing communication is
moving in that direction.
The difference between one-way and two-way communication is that in two-way
communication process the source and receiver change positions as the message
bounces back and forth between them. If marketers want to overcome the
impersonal nature of mass communication, they need to learn to receive it (i.e.,
listen to) as well as send messages to customers. Figure 4.2 illustrates an
interactive communication model.
Another way to describe interactive communication is to modify and extend the
formula introduced in Chapter 2, where we described B2C and B2B marketing.
With consumer initiated communication, that formula would turn around to
become C2B.
Communication is more complicated now because of the increasing use of social
media and word of mouth, which can be represented as B2C2. C2 refers to a
network messages with the communication shared among a network of friends.
However, shared communities could also drive the communication. In this case,
people talk about a brand and then send messages to the company.
Marketers’ use of word of mouth,buzz marketing, and social media are indicators
of the need for message integration. The important difference is that consumers
are talking to one another in a circle of comments about products and brands.
That raises the bar on the need for consistency in company-produced brand
communication, whatever the format and medium.
Interactive communication is also making the classic two-step or multistep flow
of communication model more relevant. In this model, people identified as
opinion leaders talk to other people and influence the formation of attitudes and
behaviors. This model helps to explain how word of mouth intersects with public
relations and new media in brand communication, according to one professor.
Principle: In interactive communication, there are multiple conversations
occurring in a network with people contacting companies as well as talking to
one another and companies listening and responding as well as sending
messages.
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Interactions and Interactive Experiences
A final point is that interactive communication is the building block of the
customer-brand experience, which can determine the likelihood of repeat business
and brand loyalty. The importance of interactions is underscored in the “Inside
Story’ feature about Office Depot in this chapter. You can hear a discussion about
customer service and the cases in this textbook at www.outsidein.forrester.com.
Other Aspects of Communication
It’s important to recognize that nonverbal communication can be just as powerful
as word-based forms. Many commercials are essentially nonverbal, relying on
the impact of compelling visuals.
Brand signals include slogans, but they are dominated by logos, imagery, and
color. Signaling is particularly important in the clutter and chaos of the Internet,
where attention is shortened and recognition happens in an instant.
What Are The Effects Behind Effectiveness?
The most important characteristic of brand communication is that it is purposeful.
Ads are created to have some effect, some impact on the people who read or see
their message. We refer to this as effects.
This desired impact is formally stated as a set of objectives, which are statements
of the measurable goals or results that the message is intended to achieve. In other
words, the brand message works to achieve its brand objectives.
The theme of this book is that good advertising – and brand communication – is
effective when it achieves the advertiser’s desired response. Thus, understanding
what kinds of effects can be achieved with a marketing communication message
is essential to anyone engaged in planning advertising or other forms or marketing
communication.
Principle: The intended consumer response is the message’s objective, and the
message is effective to the degree that it achieves this desired response.
Traditional Views on Impact
When we ask “how it works,” we are talking about the impact an advertisement
has on receivers of the message, that is, how they respond to the message. What
are these effects that determine whether an advertisement works? Here are two
traditional approaches that outline the impact of advertising.
AIDA. The most commonly used explanation of how advertising works is one
referred to as AIDA, which stands for Attention, Interest, Desire, and Action.
Because AIDA assumes a predictable set of steps, it is also referred to as a
hierarchy of effects model.
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Think/Feel/Do. This model was developed in the 1970s and is also referred to
as the FCB model. The idea is that advertising motivates people to think about
the message, feel something about the brand, and then do something, such as
try it or buy it. This view is supported by recent research.
One problem with these approaches is that they are based on the concepts of a
predictable process that consumers go through in making decisions, beginning
with exposure to a brand message. In reality, however, we know that consumers
sometimes buy out of habit, and in other situations, they buy on impulse.
A different approach that attempted to solve the problem of linear steps is found
in Moriarty’s Domains Model. It is based on the idea that messages have an
impact on consumer responses, not in steps, but simultaneously. The three key
effects, or domains, identified in this approach are: 1) perception, 2) learning, and
3) persuasion. The idea is that a message can engage consumers’ perceptions
(attention, interest), educate them (think, learn), and persuade them (change
attitude and behavior) all at the same time. The Port of Vancouver ads in Exhibit
4.3 provide an example of how these effects interact.
Yet another approach to analyzing what works in brand communication is
presented in Armstrong’s Persuasive Advertising book, which identifies 194
principles based on research findings over the years.
Principle: Not all purchases begin with a search for information. Some purchases
are made out of habit or on impulse.
WHAT ARE THE FACETSOF IMPACT?
Our objective in this chapter is to present the Facets Model of Effects, which does
a more complete job than previous models of explaining how advertising creates
impact. Effective marketing communication speaks to us about things that we
want to know in ways that we like.
The solution to our search for a new model is to build on the effects identified in
the think/feel/do model and add the missing categories, such as perception,
association, and persuasion. Thus, we propose a six-factor model that should be
useful both in setting objectives and in evaluating the effectiveness of the
advertising.
Our answer to the question of how advertising works is to propose that effective
advertising creates six types of consumer responses: 1) see/hear, 2) feel, 3)
think/understand, 4) connect, 5) believe, and 6) act/do—all of which work
together to create a response to a brand message. These six consumer responses
and the categories of effects to which they belong are represented in Figure 4.3.
The Perception Facet: See/Hear
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Every day we are bombarded with stimuli, such as faces, conversations, scents,
sounds, advertisements, news announcements. Yet, we actually notice only a
small fraction. Why? The answer is perception. Perception is the process by
which we receive information through our five senses and assign meaning to it. If
an advertisement is to be effective it, first of all, has to get noticed. It has to be
seen or heard, even if the perception is minimal and largely below the level of
awareness. The challenge is to create breakthrough messages that get attention
and stick in the mind.
Principle: Breakthrough messages grab (get attention) and stick (lock in memory.)
Perception is a meaning-making process that involves two approaches. One is the
Gestalt viewpoint, which means that messages are understood as a unified whole.
The other approach involves a moment-by-moment analysis of the interconnected
strong of words and images in a commercial or in a series of strategic messages.
Either or both approaches lead to a brand impression in memory. Our minds are
full of impressions that we have collected without much active thought or
concentration. Breakthrough Advertising is brand communication that breaks
through our perceptual filters, engages our attention, and makes a lasting
impression on the audience.
Principle: Breakthrough advertising breaks through perceptual filters, engages
attention, and makes a lasting impression.
Factors That Drive Perception
Consumers select the messages to which they pay attention, a process called
selective perception. Here’s how perception works: Some ads for some product
categories battle for attention because people do not choose to watch them.
However, if the message breaks through the disinterest and is selected and
attended to, then the consumer may react to it with interest if it is relevant. The
result is awareness of the ad or brand, which is filed in memory, at least to the
point that the consumer recognizes the brand or ad.
The key factors driving perception are exposure, selection and attention, interest, and
relevance, awareness, and recognition. Below is a brief review of these terms and how
they relate to advertising impact.
• Exposure.The first test of perception is when a marketing communication
message is seen or heard. In advertising, this is called exposure, which is an
important goal of media planners who try to find the best way to connect
consumers to a message.
• Selection and Attention. This is the process by which a receiver of a message
chooses to attend to a message. Amidst all the clutter in the media environment,
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selection is a huge problem. The ability to draw attention that brings visibility to a
brand is one of advertising’s greatest strengths. Advertisements, particularly
television commercials, are often designed to be intrusive, which means they
intrude on people’s perception and grab attention.
• Interest.A factor in crossing the selection barrier is interest, which means the
receiver of the message has become mentally engaged in some way with the ad
and the product. Ad messages are designed not only to get attention, but also to
hold the audience’s interest long enough for the audience to register the point of
the ad—that level of interest and attention is sometimes referred to as stickiness,
particularly for websites.
Relevance. One reason people are interested in something is relevance, which
means the message connects on some personal level.
• Curiosity. Another reason people pay attention is curiosity, which results from
questioning, wanting to know more, or being intrigued by something. However,
research indicates that curiosity may also create a problem for certain types of
advertising campaigns.
Awareness.When you are aware of something, you know that you have seen it or
heard it before. In other words, awareness results when an advertisement makes
an impression and something registers. New product campaigns, for example,
seek to create high levels of brand awareness.
• Recognition. Advertisers are interested in two types of memory: recognition,
which means people remember seeing the ad and recall, which means they
remember what the ad said. Recognition is a measure of perception and is used to
determine awareness.Recall is a measure of understanding and we will talk about
that in a later section on cognitive effects. Recognition relies on simple visuals
that lock into memory, such as logos (Nike’s Swoosh), as well as colors (IBM’s
blue), jingles and sounds (Gershwin’s Rhapsody in Bluefor United
Airlines),characters (the Energizer bunny), key visuals (Polo’s ponies or the
disbelieving look of the Aflac duck), and slogans (Altoids – The Curiously Strong
Mints). Memory depends heavily upon repetition to anchor the impression in the
mind.
The Synergy Requirement. We mentioned earlier Preston’s idea that the end
result of effective marketing communication is an integrated perception.In
campaigns that use an IMC approach, marketers coordinate all marketing
communication messages to create synergy, which means individual messages
have more impact working jointly to promote a product than they would if
working on their own. This happens whether or not the marketer plans for
integrated communication.
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IMC Principle: People automatically integrate brand messages and experiences.
Synergy occurs when all of the messages work together to create a coherent
brand perception.
The Subliminal Issue
Subliminal effects are message cues given below the threshold of perception. In
other words, they don’t register. They are designed to get past your perceptual
filters by talking to your subconscious. In contrast to the views of most
professionals and professors in advertising, critics who believe in subliminal
advertising presume such messages to be intense enough to influence behavior,
and they consider it to be unfair manipulation of unaware viewers.
There is a continuing debate about whether subliminal advertising really exists.
However, it is impossible to convince devout believers that it does not. Whether
or not it is an effective advertising tool is a more important question. Professor
Sheri Broyles at the University of North Texas describes the research and thinking
about this topic in the A Principled Practice feature in this chapter.
The Emotional or Affective Facet: Feel
Affective responses mirror our feelings about something – anger, love, fear, hate.
The term affective describes something that stimulates wants, touches the
emotions, creates liking, and elicits feelings. A lesson learned from the recent
economic downturn is that positive brand communication is important.
Feelings and emotions can be positive or negative. Generally, brand
communication seeks to wrap a positive halo around a brand and a purchase
decision. The CEO of Saatchi & Saatchi describes the passion that loyal
customers feel for their favorite brands as “lovemarks.”
The importance of positive responses has been institutionalized by Facebook with
its famous ‘like’ button. Sometimes, however, a brand message arouses different
emotions, such as fear or dislike.Some ads are designed to make you feel negative
about something, such as smoking, bugs in your home, or a political candidate. In
the case of irritating advertising, you may respond by disliking the ad or the
product.
Look back at the Facets of Effects model in Figure 4.3 and notice how perception
and emotion sit side-by-side at the top of the model. Although this isn’t a linear
model, the perceptual process begins with perception if a message registers at all.
Emotion is a driving factor because it is closely related to perception.
Erik du Plessis, the CEO of a global advertising research firm, makes the
argument in his book, The Advertised Mind, that attention is driven by emotion.
He says our emotional responses to a message determine whether or not we pay
attention. The key task of an ad then is initially to evoke an emotional response.
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A question arises, however, about the power of a negative message, one that aims
to generate negative responses, such as dislike and loathing. Negative political
advertising, for example, is a huge area of debate.
Factors That Drive the Emotion
Emotional responses are powerful, not only because they drive perception, but also
because they break through disinterest. Furthermore, positive emotional responses
drive memory as well. The affective response drivers are wants and desires, feelings,
liking, and resonance. Emotion causes us to “feel” something.
Wants and Desires. “I want something” implies desire. Wants are driven by
emotions and based on wishes, longings, and cravings. Impulse buying is a
good example of the motivational power of wants. When you are standing in
line at a store and see a display of candy bars, you may want one, but that
doesn’t mean you need it. It’s strictly desire and that is driven by emotion.
Excitement. A step above interest in terms of intensity of response is
excitement. If we are excited about something, we are agitated or energized
and more willing to participate or make a commitment.
Feelings. Our passions and feelings are addressed in a number of ways in
advertising, such as humor, love, or fear. Ads that rely on arousing feelings are
referred to as emotional appeals. Research supports the idea that emotional
appeals have more impact than rational approaches on both attitudes and
behavior.
Liking. Two important affective responses to a message are liking the brand
and liking the ad. Liking reflects the personality of the brand or the
entertainment power of the ad’s execution. The assumption is that if you like
the ad, then that positive feeling will transfer to the brand and if you feel
positive about the brand, you will be more likely to buy it.
Principle: A positive response to an ad is important because marketers hope that
liking the ad will increase liking the brand.
On the opposite side of liking is brand aversion, which means people avoid
buying a brand because they don’t like the ads or what they associate with the
brand. For example, we don’t like to see condom ads, so they aren’t often found
in the mass media.
Resonance.Effective advertisements sometimes create resonance where the
message “rings true.” Like relevance, messages that resonate help the consumer
identify with the brand on a personal level. These sympathetic vibes amplify the
emotional impact by engaging a personal connection with a brand.
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