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Chapter 3: Language and Meaning
Chapter Objectives and Integrator Guide
After reading and thinking about this chapter, students should be able to meet the
following objectives.
Objectives
1. Define language and understand how it works.
Key terms: language, decode, semantics, syntax, encode, pragmatics, phatic
communication, culture, Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, connotative meaning, denotative
meaning
2. Understand the characteristics of language.
Key terms: clichés, euphemisms, doublespeak, slang, profanity, jargon, regionalisms,
sexist language, racist language, heterosexist language, ageist language
3. Use language effectively.
Key terms: descriptiveness, paraphrasing, operational definition, concrete language,
dating, frozen evaluation, indexing
Activities
Activity 3.1 The Language of Advertising
Objectives
Students should be able to identify connotative and denotative meanings of words; to discuss
the use of abstract and concrete words; to differentiate between descriptive and evaluative
words; and to give examples of the use of language to distort.
Procedure
Have each student bring to class two or three advertisements from newspapers or magazines.
Divide the students into groups of four or five. Have the students in each group identify the
characteristics, use, and misuse of language in the advertisements. You might also want to
ask the students to rewrite the ads to make them more concrete and descriptive and to reduce
the connotative impact of the message. As a variation, you may wish to provide the
advertisements (or use advertisements contributed by students) in a PowerPoint or Prezi
presentation.
Class Discussion
When the groups have finished their analyses, discuss each concept individually as the
students provide examples. The students should identify the connotative and denotative
meanings of words used in the advertisements by explaining what specific meaning the
words have for them. If the procedural variation is used, the students should discuss all the
characteristics of language illustrated by each advertisement displayed. Discussion should
include the level of abstraction of the words used, the inferences to be drawn from the
advertisement, the ways in which language was used to distort meaning, and the use of
descriptive and evaluative language.
Applications
This activity acquaints students with the characteristics of language and the use of language
in the real world. The students may make similar analyses of persuasive speeches, evidence,
and nonverbal messages.
Activity 3.2 Visitor from Space
Objectives
Students should be able to identify the relationship between symbols and reality; to explain
how words come to have meaning; and to discuss the implications of the Sapir-Whorf
hypothesis.
Procedure
Pose the following problem to the class:
You are all members of the Space Science Communication Research Division.
We have just been contacted by alien beings from the planet Garth, in the star
system Andromeda. You are to devise a method by which to teach them English.
We know that they have a mathematical system similar to ours, but in all other
respects—physically, emotionally, and psychologically—they are completely
dissimilar to us. They do seem to have mastered three phrases of English, which
indicates a capacity for reproducing human sounds. Unfortunately, the words they
have learned seem to have no meaning for them, as they use them indiscriminately.
The words—deodorant, toilet paper, and soap—were obviously learned from
monitoring our television broadcasts. Your job is to prepare a procedure by which
we may learn to communicate with them in English.
Divide the students into groups of five and let them work on the problem. It may be helpful
to visit each group to stimulate the students’ thinking and to pose questions about their
proposed procedure. When all of the groups have had sufficient time to discuss the problem
and to sketch out their procedures, have them share their ideas with the class.
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Class Discussion
Discuss the feasibility of each group’s plan relating the concepts of language to the proposal.
The discussion should focus on the relationship between symbols and reality. When there are
no common referents, it is difficult to use language to create common meanings;
nevertheless, the students may suggest some creative procedures. Close examination of their
ideas should indicate ways in which language can be learned by children and people of
different nationalities. Most of the discussion probably will focus initially on the learning of
Applications
The relationship between language and the world around us is dramatized by the idea of
space visitors whose reality is different. This activity can be used to examine the relationship
between words and reality, the arbitrariness of symbols, and the subjective aspects of
meaning.
Activity 3.3 Euphemisms and Clichés
Objectives
Students should be able to indicate how we use euphemisms to affect the connotations of
words and ideas; and to demonstrate how clichés lose meaning and become a substitute for
the expression of feelings and ideas.
Procedure
Divide the students into groups of three. Give each group of students the following list of
words (it may save time to assign one word to each group), and have the students list as
many clichés and euphemisms as they can for each word:
death toilet immigrant
marriage drugs athlete
Have each group present their euphemisms and clichés to the class. If time and space permit,
it would be helpful to put the lists on the board.
Class Discussion
The students should discuss why substitute words are used and how they affect the meaning
of the original words. The students should determine when and where the use of each
euphemism or cliché would be appropriate or inappropriate.
Applications
This activity illustrates the relationship between words and perceptions; that is, that the
words we use to describe an idea influence our perception of the idea, and thus its meaning.
It also illustrates the relationship of words to the skills of concreteness, descriptiveness, and
empathic understanding. Clichés often substitute for an open and honest expression of
feelings.
Activity 3.4 Word Association
Objectives
Students should be able to differentiate between evaluative and descriptive language;
identify connotative and denotative words; and discuss the influence of self-concept on the
interpretation of words.
Procedure
Ask the students to write the numbers 1 to 20 on a sheet of paper. Tell them that you will
read a list of 20 words and that they are to write down the first word that occurs to them after
you have read each word. The following may be used:
home teacher speech lady
God police wicked Democrat
circus friend star lamp
biker love crime Republican
ghost money death exam
Class Discussion
This discussion should focus on the reasons for different responses—perception, self-
concept, or context—and how these personal interpretations of words affect communication.
Applications
This activity demonstrates how people react to words, stimulates a discussion of language as
Activity 3.5 Paraphrasing
Objectives
Students should be able to identify statements as paraphrases of intent or content; to
demonstrate an ability to paraphrase another’s statements; and to discuss paraphrasing as a
method of increasing understanding.
Procedure
Divide the students into groups of two or three. Within each group, the students should
discuss their future goals and ambitions. Before one person can make a statement, however,
he or she must paraphrase the comments of the person who spoke previously.
Class Discussion
After approximately ten minutes, discuss, as a class, the students’ experiences. The normal
response of students is that the exercise is difficult. Try to ascertain why paraphrasing is
difficult for most people. The conclusion usually reached is that (1) we do not listen closely
enough to be able to paraphrase; (2) people use words differently so meanings are confusing;
(3) people tend to make long statements, which makes it difficult to paraphrase the entire
idea; and (4) the listener is more concerned with understanding the other person than in
preparing the paraphrase. The discussion should also focus on the types of paraphrasing
used (intent or content) and the effect of each on the interaction. Ask the students to provide
specific examples of paraphrases of intent or content from their discussion.
Applications
This activity illustrates paraphrasing and increases the students’ understanding of the value of
paraphrasing in communication. Paraphrasing is also an important way to express empathy.
Activity 3.6 Personal Talk
Objective
Students should be able to understand that language usage is personal and learned over time.
Procedure
Read the list (below) to students and instruct them to complete the words and phrases to form
a sentence. After everyone has completed their responses, ask several students how they
completed the thought.
I believe that religion: I could never:
In ten years I would love to: The environment:
The most attractive personality characteristic that I possess: Television has:
Our government needs: Today’s teenagers act:
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Class Discussion
Several questions should arise as a result of this activity. How dramatic of a difference in
response occurred from one student to another? Did females differ from males in their
responses? What does this activity suggest about the personal nature of language? How does
this exercise demonstrate the value of understanding that language usage is highly personal
and continually changes over the years?
Applications
This activity illustrates that language often reflects values or values often reflect language.
Students should be more tolerant of the language idiosyncrasies of others.
Activity 3.7 Same Thing But Different
Objectives
Students should be able to increase their awareness of how individuals perceive the same
word differently.
Procedure
Ask the students to respond to the list of instructions below. There should be no discussion
1. Name three exciting people.
2. List two dirty words.
3. Name three bad people.
4. List two good people.
5. Name three clean films.
Class Discussion
When the class has finished responding to the questions, divide the class into small groups of
five to seven students and have them discuss their lists. They will find that individuals will
have most likely perceived the adjectives (i.e., “exciting,” “dirty,” etc.) differently. Lead a
discussion on connotative and denotative meanings and how we associate words with
different meanings.
Applications
This activity illustrates that meanings are in people, not in words. Further, our conversations
are often unclear due to these individual perceptual differences.
