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5. Would you like to work as a restaurant manager for DineEquity under Stewart’s
leadership? Why or why not.
a. This is a personal opinion question and responses will vary.
LEGAL/ETHICAL CHALLENGE: Is Overtime the Right Way to Go?
What are the ethical implications of Westlund-Deenihan’s decision?
1. This is a very fair deal based on the management principle of “share the pain,
share the gain.” It also gives Westlund-Deenihan some room to maneuver in
case the economy softens again.
2. Rehiring the laid-off employees (those willing and able to return) for at least part-
time work, before granting overtime to existing employees, would have better
served the greater good. In all fairness, the laid-off employees probably suffered
the most.
3. Westlund-Deenihan should have had the employees vote for overtime or for
bringing back all laid-off employees, and acted accordingly.
4. Invent other options. Explain and discuss.
Discussion:
In today’s uncertain economic times, companies are more hesitant than ever to hire
employees. Employers don’t like laying-off valuable workers any more than employees
like to be laid-off. The benefit of using the overtime strategy is that the company can
avoid the need to hire new employees or re-hire laid-off employees until it is certain that
the economic recovery is stable. Although laid-off employees who have yet to find a
new, or comparable job, might jump at the chance to return to work, it would be even
more demotivating for them only to be laid-off once again if the economy once again
turns sour. Any laid-off workers who are re-hired only to be laid-off again may also face
negative consequences if it impacts their unemployment insurance and/or severance
package they received from the company. The disadvantage of using overtime is that it
is not sustainable in the long-run. Employees will become exhausted if they are forced
to work too much overtime or they may suffer work-family conflict if the increased hours
makes it difficult for them address their work and family responsibilities. There would be
several potential advantages to allowing employees to have a voice in deciding between
the choice between overtime work and the re-hiring of former colleagues. It would
foster choice and progress, two of the building blocks of intrinsic motivation. A potential
disadvantage of the employee participation plan is that employees may feel accountable
for the outcome if it
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becomes clear that the employees made a poor choice. For instance, survivor’s guilt is
hard enough the first time around; it would likely be nearly unbearable if the re-hired
workers needed to be laid-off again after just a few months.
INTERNET EXERCISE
http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/humanbody/mind/index_surveys.shtml
BBC, the European news organization, has an interesting collection of surveys,
interactive activities and exercises on its website to give you insight into a variety of
aspects of personality. Not all of the activities are business related, but many are. For
this exercise, you will be asked to complete two assessments from this webpage. The
first survey is designed to give you feedback about which type of career suits you best.
The instrument has seven questions and should take between 5-10 minutes. For the
seven questions, you are asked to select from a list of tasks which of the tasks you
would most like to do and which one you would least like to do. After answering all the
questions, you are given a summary report that describes broad classifications of jobs
that would be well suited to your interests and preferences. To complete this
instrument, go the Science & Nature: Human Body and Mind section of the BBC
webpage at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/humanbody/mind/index_surveys.shtml
Under the “Personality and Individuality” section, click on “Careers” under the
“Psychology Tests and Surveys” heading and complete the “Careers Test” instrument.
The second survey is designed to measure how much of a perfectionist you are. The
instrument has 35 questions and should take about 10 minutes. To take this
instrument, return to the “Personality and Individuality” section, click on “Perfectionism”
under the “Psychology Tests and Surveys” heading and complete the instrument. After
completing both instruments, answer the questions below.
Questions:
1. To what extent do you think that your personality assessment profiles are an
accurate assessment of who you are as a person? Explain.
2. Based on your survey results and what you have learned in Parts One and Two
of the textbook, discuss what you can conclude about your individual differences
and what this means for the types of jobs that would suit you.
3. Based on your scores on the “Careers” instrument, what types of tasks and
activities would you find intrinsically motivating?
4. Based on your scores on the “Perfectionism” instrument, what type of feedback is
most likely to motivate you?
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INSTRUCTIONAL RESOURCES
1. For some excellent material for in-class discussion and expansion on the topic of
how to bring employees closer to the company and increase loyalty and
performance see “Employee Engagement: A Roadmap for Creating Profits,
Optimizing Performance, and Increasing Loyalty” by B. Federman (Jossey-Bass,
2009).
2. See “Topic 7: Motivation and Goal Setting” and “Topic 8: Feedback” in “An
Instructor’s Guide to an Active Classroom” by A. Johnson & A. Kinicki (McGraw-
Hill/Irwin, 2006).
3. See “Gender, Age, and the MBA: An Analysis of Extrinsic and Intrinsic Career
Benefits” by R. Simpson, J. Struges, A. Woods, and Y. Altman in Journal of
Management Education, 2005, Vol. 29(2), pp. 218-247.
4. Personal goal setting is discussed in “The Personal Data Analysis Exercise” by
D. Bacon and K. Stewart in Journal of Management Education, 2001, Vol. 25(1),
pp. 70-78.
TOPICAL RESOURCES
1. What happens when your goals conflict? Read “Effect of Perceived Conflict
Among Multiple Performance Goals and Goal Difficulty on Task Performance” by
M. Cheng et al. in Accounting & Finance, 2007, Vol. 47, pp. 221-242.
2. Feedback can help group members know who to listen to for what. See “The
Effects of Member Expertise on Group Decision-Making and Group
Performance” by B. Bonner et al. in Organizational Behavior and Human
Decision Processes, Vol. 88, pp. 719-736.
3. See “The Effect of Feedback Sign on Task Performance Depends on Self-
Concept Discrepancies” by J. Vancouver and E. Teschner in Journal of Applied
Psychology, 2004, Vol. 89(6), pp. 1092-1098.
VIDEO RESOURCES
1. A review of modern motivational approaches is contained in the film “A New Look
at Motivation” (CRM Films).
2. An overview of motivation theories is presented in the film “Understanding
Motivation” (BNA Communications, Inc).
3. Insight Media produces three videos dealing with motivation. They include
“Motivation,” “Motivating Others,” and “Motivating People in Today’s Workplace.”
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DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. Why do many managers fall short when providing employee feedback?
2. Analyze the potential advantages and disadvantages of 360-degree feedback.
3. What forms of intrinsic motivation do you experience based on your success in
your classes this term?
4. Assume you wanted to achieve a personal goal such as losing weight, getting
more exercise, getting organized, etc. How could you apply the principles of
positive reinforcement to help you achieve your goal?
5. Discuss why organizational reward systems often fail and describe specific
actions firms could take to improve their reward systems.
SUPPLEMENTAL EXERCISE 1: SHAPING BEHAVIOR
APPLICATION
This exercise gives students the chance to apply the behavior modification concepts
presented in this chapter to realistic scenarios. It is designed to help them understand
the practical applications of the concepts, as well as the limitations. For each brief
scenario, have students identify the target behavior and decide upon the appropriate
contingent consequences.
These scenarios can form the basis for a written assignment, be completed individually
or in groups in class. A handout containing the three scenarios is presented at the end
of the exercise. Some suggested approaches to the scenarios are shown below.
* * *
SCENARIO I: The Tardy Operators
Despite repeated warnings and discussions on this issue, the three switchboard
operators in your department are late on a regular basis. This unreliability creates
significant problems, because the switchboard is the only way to receive incoming calls.
After a “crackdown,” the operators get in on time for a while, but then slip back into old
patterns. You know that part of the problem is that all three have pre-school children,
and excuses for lateness usually revolve around getting them up and to day care.
However, other employees with young children are able to get to work on time regularly.
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Solution: The target behavior in this case is the on-time record of the three switchboard
operators. Remember, managers want to identify a desirable behavior that occurs too
seldom (e.g., being on time) rather than an undesirable behavior that occurs too often
(e.g., being late). A functional analysis of the situation involves identifying of the
reasons given for on-time behavior (and providing opportunities for this behavior) and
for the late behavior (these are obstacles for the desired behavior). Also, it is possible
that the three employees are reinforcing each other’s lateness through discussion and
behavior. Arranging antecedents and provide consequences may involve discussing
their morning schedules with them, suggesting possibilities such as getting up earlier,
finding a closer day care, or having the spouse drop off the children. Another idea is to
create a modified flex-time rotation schedule, where each of the three employees only
need to be “on-time” every three days, and can start a half-hour later the other two
days. Negative consequences could include written reprimands, low performance
evaluations, and eventually termination. (However, it should be made clear that positive
consequences have longer lasting impact.) Positive consequences could range from
donuts to celebrate a month of success, to time off in recognition of continuous on-time
performance. Evaluating results may be accomplished through a review of attendance
records.
SCENARIO II: The Perpetual Whistler
Sam, a co-worker in your department, is an incessant whistler. Often, he isn’t even
aware that he is doing it. Sometimes he whistles show tunes, but when he is really
concentrating, his whistling is tuneless and aimless. This is driving you and everyone
else in hearing distance crazy. You know that it is not intentional or malicious, and
other than this one issue, Sam is a consistently excellent worker. His manager has
spoken to him about it a number of times, but he just can’t seem to stop. Sam is just as
frustrated by it as everyone else, and would welcome any suggestions you may have.
Solution: The target behavior in this case is Sam’s almost continuous whistling. To
manage situational cues Sam needs to discover what antecedents trigger the whistling.
When trying to alter his behavior he may find that reminders such as notes on his desk
in the morning, chewing gum or sucking on hard candy may help. He could also ask co-
workers to signal him when he starts to whistle. Self-talk and rehearsal may help Sam
bring the unconscious pattern of whistling into conscious focus. It is important that Sam
keep this part of the process positively focused. Sam may want to create personal
rewards for not whistling for a certain amount of time as a way of managing
consequences. He could start with short periods, and extend them as he gets more
successful. Sam could also ask for positive reinforcement from peers, who will probably
be thrilled to help him with this.
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SCENARIO III: Getting Past “Um”
As a training manager for a large technical firm, you are responsible for helping
technical subject experts develop the presentation and facilitation skills needed to
present their information to others. The first group to go through your “train the
technical trainer” series is doing very well, with one exception. They all suffer from “um-
itis.” It is seemingly impossible for them to last through more than two or three
sentences without “ums” peppering their speech. This is not only distracting, but
detracts from the effectiveness of their presentations and their credibility as trainers.
Solution: The target behavior in this case is the “um” habit. Ums come into speech as
a substitute for silent pauses. Thus, the likely antecedent is feeling uncomfortable at a
silent pause. The trainers should realize that pauses are acceptable, and consciously
and constructively use them in their presentations. The trainers need to feel
comfortable substituting silent pauses for the ums in their presentations. Toastmasters
uses an “um” beeper to let people know when they say um rather than pause. Other
approaches could include having the audience raise their hands, throwing imaginary
balls at the speaker, or anything that calls attention to it in a non-threatening way.
Positive consequences could include um elimination contests, where people were
rewarded for having the fewest ums, or the longest time without an um. They could also
compete against themselves in this, trying to beat previous records.
SHAPING BEHAVIOR — THREE SCENARIOS
The following three scenarios depict issues needing to be addressed. Outline how you
would approach solving the problem using the contingent consequences and behavior
shaping.
SCENARIO I: The Tardy Operators
Despite repeated warnings and discussions on this issue, the three switchboard
operators in your department are late on a regular basis. This unreliability creates
significant problems, because the switchboard is the only way to receive incoming calls.
After a “crackdown,” the operators get in on time for a while, but then slip back into old
patterns. You know that part of the problem is that all three have pre-school children,
and excuses for lateness usually revolve around getting them up and to day care.
However, other employees with young children are able to get to work on time regularly.
SCENARIO II: The Perpetual Whistler
Sam, a co-worker in your department, is an incessant whistler. Often, he isn’t even
aware that he is doing it. Sometimes he whistles show tunes, but when he
Chapter 09 – Improving Job Performance with Goals, Feedback, Rewards, and Positive Reinforcement
9–31
is really concentrating, his whistling is tuneless and aimless. This is driving you and
everyone else in hearing distance crazy. You know that it is not intentional or malicious,
and other than this one issue, Sam is a consistently excellent worker. His manager has
spoken to him about it a number of times, but he just can’t seem to stop. Sam is just as
frustrated by it as everyone else, and would welcome any suggestions you may have.
SCENARIO III: Getting Past “Um”
As a training manager for a large technical firm, you are responsible for helping
technical subject experts develop the presentation and facilitation skills needed to
present their information to others. The first group to go through your “train the
technical trainer” series is doing very well, with one exception. They all suffer from “um-
itis.” It is seemingly impossible for them to last through more than two or three
sentences without “ums” peppering their speech. This is not only distracting, but
detracts from the effectiveness of their presentations and their credibility as trainers.
SUPPLEMENTAL LECTURETTE 1: ORGANIZATIONAL REWARD NORMS
APPLICATION
This lecturette discusses an additional component of extrinsic reward systems. This
lecturette may be used to supplement the chapter’s coverage of organizational reward
systems.
* * *
The employer-employee linkage can be viewed as an exchange relationship.
Employees exchange their time and talent for rewards. Ideally, four alternative norms
dictate the nature of this exchange. In their purist forms, each would lead to a
significantly different reward distribution system. They include:
Profit Maximization. The objective of each party is to maximize its net gain, regardless
of how the other party fairs. A profit-maximizing company would attempt to pay the
least amount of wages for maximum effort. Conversely, a profit-maximizing employee
would seek maximum rewards, regardless of the organization’s financial well-being, and
leave the organization for a better deal.
Equity. According to the reward equity norm, rewards should be allocated proportionate
to contributions. Those who contribute the most should be rewarded the most. Basic
principles of fairness and justice are found in most cultures in varying strengths, drive
the equity norm.
Equality. The reward equality norm calls for rewarding all parties equally, regardless of
their comparative contributions. Although absolute equality does
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not exist in today’s hierarchical organizations, researchers have looked at the impact of
pay inequality. That is, they looked at pay dispersion (the pay gap between high-level
and low-level employees). Results indicate that the smaller the pay gap, the better the
individual and organizational performance.1 Thus, the outlandish compensation
packages for many of today’s top executives is not only a widely debated moral issue,
it’s perhaps a productivity issue as well.
Need. This norm calls for distributing rewards according to employees’ needs rather
than their contributions.
Conflict and ethical debates often arise over the perceived fairness of reward allocations
because of disagreement about reward norms. Stockholders might prefer a profit-
maximization norm, while technical specialists would like an equity norm, and unionized
hourly workers would argue for a pay system based on equality. A reward norm
anchored to need might prevail in a family owned and operated business. Effective
reward systems are based on clear and consensual exchange norms.
1 M. Bloom, “The Performance Effects of Pay Dispersion on Individuals and Organizations,” Academy of
Management Journal, 1999, pp. 25-40.