Chapter 10 – Group Dynamics
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CHAPTER TEN: Group Dynamics
LEARNING OJBECTIVES
See Slides 10-2, 10-3
When you finish studying the material in this chapter, you should be able to:
• Identify the four sociological criteria of a group, and discuss the impact of social
networking on group dynamics.
• Describe the five stages in Tuckman’s theory of group development, and discuss
the threat of group decay.
• Distinguish between role conflict and role ambiguity.
• Contrast roles and norms, and specify four reasons norms are enforced in
organizations.
• Distinguish between task and maintenance roles in groups.
• Summarize the practical contingency management implications for group size.
• Discuss why managers need to carefully handle mixed-gender task groups.
• Describe groupthink, and identify at least four of its symptoms.
• Define social loafing, and explain how managers can prevent it.
CHAPTER SUMMARY
In Chapter 10, the focus of the book shifts from individual behavior to collective
behavior. This chapter defines groups, discusses their functions and explores the
impact of social media on groups. This chapter describes the group development
process and roles and norms in group dynamics are also discussed. Chapter 10
explores the effects of group structure and member characteristics on group outcomes.
Finally, the threats to group effectiveness are discussed, including the Asch effect,
groupthink and social loafing.
A group is defined as two or more freely interacting individuals who share collective
norms and goals and have a common identity. A formal group is one formed by the
organization while an informal group exists when the members’ primary purpose is
friendship. Formal groups fulfill two basic functions:
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organizational and individual. An organizational function, for example, would be to
accomplish complex, interdependent tasks that are beyond the capabilities of
individuals. An individual function might be to satisfy the individual’s need for affiliation.
Internet tools and social networking sites such as Facebook, LinkedIn, and Twitter have
blurred the line between formal and informal groups. This has magnified the long-
standing dilemma of how friendly managers should be with their direct reports.
Managers are urged to compartmentalize their official and unofficial roles, a goal which
requires emotional and social intelligence.
A common model of the group development process is Tuckman’s five-stage theory. In
stage 1, forming, members tend to be uncertain about their roles, who is in charge, and
the group’s goals. Stage 2, storming, is a time of testing. Subgroups take shape, and
subtle forms of rebellion occur. If groups make it to stage 3, norming, they generally do
so because a respected member, other than the leader, challenges the group to resolve
its power struggles so something can be accomplished. A renewed feeling of team
spirit is experienced and group cohesiveness is a by-product of this stage. Stage 4,
performing, is characterized by activity focused on solving task problems. The climate
is open, cooperative, and helpful. In stage 5, adjourning, the group disbands, a time
which may be marked by rituals celebrating the end.
A growing body of group development research provides managers with some practical
insights. Research indicates that groups can shift into reverse once they reach the
performing stage in a process referred to as group decay. The quantity and quality of
feedback varies systematically during the group development process. Uncertainty
about deadlines is a disruptive force for group development and intergroup relations.
Different leadership styles are needed as work groups develop with directive and
structured leadership styles needed in the group’s early development while participative
and supportive styles are more effective as the group continues to develop.
Roles represent expected behaviors for a given position. A role episode, as illustrated
in Figure 10-3, consists of a snapshot of the ongoing interaction between two people.
Role overload occurs when the role sender’s expectations exceed the focal person’s
ability. Role conflict is experienced when different members have conflicting or
inconsistent expectations of the focal person. Finally, role ambiguity occurs when the
focal person does not know what is expected of him or her. Research indicates that
role conflict and role ambiguity negatively affect employees. Norms are shared
attitudes, opinions, feelings, or actions that guide social behavior. Norms are developed
through explicit statements by supervisors or co-workers, critical events in the group’s
history, primacy effects, or carryover behaviors from past situations. Norms help the
group survive, clarify behavioral expectations, help avoid embarrassing situations, and
clarify the group’s central values and identity.
A group’s structure and composition can enhance or hinder group effectiveness,
depending on how the group is managed. Task and maintenance roles, which
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are described in Table 10-4, are important to groups. Task roles enable the group to
pursue a common purpose, while maintenance roles foster interpersonal relationships.
Research has sought to determine the optimal group size. The mathematical modeling
approach and the laboratory simulation approach indicate that groups of 3 to 5
members are appropriate when a high-quality decision is the group’s main objective but
larger groups can be appropriate when the goal is to generate creative ideas,
encourage participation, or socialize new members. If majority votes are to be taken,
odd-numbered groups are recommended to avoid deadlocks. A group’s gender
composition can affect group dynamics. Research indicates a pattern of gender
inequality exists in mixed-gender groups. Men interrupt women significantly more often
than they do other men. Women moving into male-dominated fields face greater
resistance than do males moving into female-dominated fields. The increased social
contact between the genders has lead to increased sexualization of the workplace.
Proactive steps are needed to ensure that increased sexualization of work
environments does not erode into sexual harassment.
Three major threats to group effectiveness are the Asch effect, groupthink and social
loafing. The Asch effect is defined as the distortion of individual judgment by a
unanimous but incorrect opposition. That is, group pressure may cause an individual to
go against his or her own judgment. The Asch effect can seriously threaten the
effectiveness and ethical judgment of work groups.
Groupthink occurs when members of cohesive groups are unwilling to realistically
appraise alternatives. Symptoms of groupthink include invulnerability, inherent morality,
rationalization, stereotyped views of opposition, self-censorship, illusion of unanimity,
peer pressure, and mindguards. Research indicates that groups with moderate levels
of cohesiveness produce the best decisions, and highly cohesive groups suffering from
groupthink make the poorest decisions, despite high confidence in those decisions.
Techniques promoting critical evaluation and debate help prevent groupthink.
Social loafing is the tendency for individual effort to decline as group size increases.
Social loafing occurs when the task is perceived to be unimportant or uninteresting,
group members feel their individual output is not identifiable, and they expect their co-
workers to loaf. Increasing personal accountability is a good way to prevent social
loafing. Hybrid rewards that include team and individual components can reduce social
loafing. In the Internet Age, firms need remedies to deal with social loafing on virtual
teams and cyberloafing, defined as using the Internet for nonwork-related activities.
Table 10-6 provides recommendations for dealing with social loafing in the Internet Age.
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LECTURE OUTLINE
I. Introduction
i) Organizations, by definition, are collections of people constantly interacting to
achieve something greater than individuals could accomplish on their own.
ii) Table 10-1: Key Social Skills Managers Need for Building Social Capital
profiles the four key social skills managers need. See Slide 10-4
II. Groups in the Social Media Age
i) Overview of Groups
(1) Managers need a solid understanding of groups and group processes to
both avoid their pitfalls and tap their vast potential.
(2) Group: two or more freely interacting people with shared collective norms
and goals and a common identity. See Slide 10-5
(3) Figure 10-1: Four Sociological Criteria of a Group presents the four
criteria for the definition of a group and how they combine to form a
conceptual whole. See Slide 10-6
ii) Formal and Informal Groups See Slide 10-7
(1) Formal group: formed by the organization.
(2) Informal group: formed by friends.
iii) Functions of Formal Groups
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(1) Table 10-2: Formal Groups Fulfill Organizational and Individual
Functions describes the two basic functions of formal groups. See
Slide 10-8
(2) Organizational functions:
(a) Accomplish complex, interdependent tasks that are beyond the
capabilities of individuals.
(b) Generate new or creative ideas and solutions.
(c) Coordinate interdepartmental efforts.
(d) Provide a problem-solving mechanism for complex problems requiring
varied information and assessments.
(e) Implement complex decisions.
(f) Socialize and train newcomers.
(3) Individual functions:
(a) Satisfy the individual’s need for affiliation.
(b) Develop, enhance, and confirm the individual’s self-esteem and sense
of identity.
(c) Give individuals an opportunity to test and share their perceptions of
social reality.
(d) Reduce the individual’s anxieties and feelings of insecurity and
powerlessness.
(e) Provide a problem-solving mechanism for personal and interpersonal
problems.
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iv) Formal-Informal Boundaries Have Blurred in the Age of Social Media
(1) The Social Media Revolution
(a) Thanks to Internet tools such as e-mail, blogs, Facebook, LinkedIn,
YouTube, and Twitter, networking has gone hyper and global.
(b) The Real World/Real People: Russian Culture Embraces Social
Media profiles the growth of social media in one country.
(c) Social networking site (SNS): a Web-enabled community of people
who share all types of information.
(d) There are mostly unanswered questions and unknown consequences
created by social media and SNSs.
(e) The lines between formal and informal groups in the workplace have
been blurred almost beyond recognition as a result of social media.
(2) Should Managers Be Friends with Those Who Report to Them?
(a) Managers need a good deal of emotional and social intelligence to
separate personal friendships from professional responsibilities.
III. The Group Development Process
i) Overview of Group Development
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(1) Groups and teams in the workplace go through a maturation process but
theorists disagree about the exact number, sequence, length, and nature
of those stages.
(2) Figure 10-2: Tuckman’s Five-Stage Theory of Group Development is
one oft-cited model of the group stages. See Slide 10-9
(3) Many researchers and practitioners like this five-stage model of group
development because of its easy-to-remember labels and commonsense
appeal.
(4) The stages are not necessarily of the same duration or intensity for each
group and may be impacted by the goal clarity and the commitment and
maturity of the members.
ii) Five Stages
(1) Stage 1: Forming See Slide 10–10
(a) Ice-breaking stage—group members tend to be uncertain and anxious
about such things as their roles, who is in charge, and the group’s
goals.
(b) Mutual trust is low, and there is a good deal of holding back to see who
takes charge and how.
(c) If the formal leader (e.g., a supervisor) does not assert his or her
authority, an emergent leader will eventually step in to fulfill
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the group’s need for leadership and direction.
(2) Stage 2: Storming See Slide 10–11
(a) Individuals test the leader’s policies and assumptions as they try to
determine how they fit into the power structure.
(b) Subgroups take shape, and subtle forms of rebellion occur.
(c) Many groups stall in stage 2 because power and politics erupt into
open rebellion.
(3) Stage 3: Norming See Slide 10–12
(a) Groups making it this far usually do so thanks to a respected member,
other than the leader, challenging the group to resolve its power
struggles so something can be accomplished.
(b) By-product of this stage is group cohesiveness: a “we feeling”
binding group members together.
(4) Stage 4: Performing See Slide 10-14
(a) Activity is focused on solving task problems.
(b) Contributors get their work done without hampering others.
(c) Climate of open communication and strong cooperation.
(d) Conflicts and job boundary disputes are handled constructively and
efficiently.
(e) Cohesiveness and personal commitment to group goals help the group
achieve more than could any one individual acting alone.
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(5) Stage 5: Adjourning See Slide 10-15
(a) The work is done so it is time to move on to other things.
(b) Members feel a sense of loss.
(c) Return to independence can be eased by rituals celebrating “the end”
and “new beginnings” through parties, award ceremonies, graduations,
etc.
iii) Group Development: Research and Practical Implications
(1) Extending the Tuckman Model: Group Decay See Slide 10–16
(a) Recent research on long-term groups extended the Tuckman model to
include group decay, where groups shift into reverse once the
“performing stage” was reached.
(b) There are three observed stages of group decay:
(i) De-norming: group members drift in different directions as their
interests and expectations change.
(ii) De-storming: an undercurrent of discontent slowly comes to the
surface, individual resistance increases and cohesiveness declines.
(iii)De-forming: the group falls apart as subgroups battle for control
and performance rapidly declines.
(c) Group leaders should not become complacent upon reaching
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the performing stage and constructive steps need to be taken to
reinforce norms, bolster cohesiveness, and reaffirm the common
goal—even when work groups seem to be doing their best.
(2) Feedback
(a) The quantity and quality of feedback varies systematically during the
group development process; the quantity and specificity of feedback
increases as the group matures.
(b) The content and delivery of interpersonal feedback among work group
or committee members can be used as a gauge of whether the group
is developing properly.
(3) Deadlines
(a) Uncertainty about deadlines is a disruptive force in both group
development and intergroup relations.
(b) When members accurately perceive deadlines, pacing of work and
timing of interdependent tasks tends to be more efficient.
(4) Leadership Styles
(a) Different leadership styles are needed as work groups develop.
(b) Directive and structured leadership styles are beneficial in the group’s
early development while participative and supportive styles are more
effective as the group continues to develop.
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IV. Roles and Norms: Social Building Blocks for Group and Organizational
Behavior
i) Roles See Slide 10-17
(1) Roles Overview
(a) Roles: a set of expected behaviors for a given position.
(b) Role theory attempts to explain how these social expectations
influence employee behavior.
(2) Role Episodes
(a) A role episode consists of a snapshot of the ongoing interaction
between two people.
(b) Figure 10-3: A Role Episode illustrates a role episode. See
Slide 10–18
(c) Role episodes begin with the role sender’s perception of the
organization’s or the group’s behavioral requirements.
(d) Those requirements serve as a standard for formulating expectations
for the focal person’s behavior.
(e) The role sender then cognitively evaluates the focal person’s actual
behavior against those expectations.
(f) Appropriate verbal and behavioral messages are then sent to the focal
person to pressure him or her into behaving as expected.
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(3) Role Overload
(a) Role overload: when others’ expectations exceed one’s abilities.
See Slide 10–19
(b) Role overload can lead to physical and emotional consequences and
personal effectiveness may slip.
(4) Role Conflict
(a) Role conflict: others have conflicting or inconsistent expectations.
See Slide 10–19
(b) Job holders often face conflicting demands between work and family.
(c) Role conflict may be experienced when internalized values, ethics, or
personal standards collide with others’ expectations.
(5) Role Ambiguity
(a) Role ambiguity: others’ expectations are unknown. See Slide
10–20
(b) Prolonged role ambiguity can foster job dissatisfaction, erode self-
confidence, and hamper job performance.
(c) In one study, people in individualistic cultures were found to have
higher role ambiguity than people in collectivist cultures.
ii) Norms See Slide 10–21
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(1) Norms Overview
(a) Norm: shared attitudes, opinions, feelings, or actions that guide social
behavior.
(b) Norms help group members determine right from wrong and good from
bad.
(c) Norms are typically unwritten and seldom discussed openly, but they
have a powerful influence on group and organizational behavior.
(d) Individuals not complying with the norms can face ostracism or
rejection by other group members.
(e) Ostracism: rejection by other group members.
(2) How Norms are Developed See Slide 10–22
(a) Norms evolve in an informal manner as the group or organization
determines what it takes to be effective.
(b) Norms often develop in following ways:
(i) Explicit statements by supervisors or co-workers.
(ii) Critical events in the group’s history.
(iii)Primacy.
(iv)Carryover behaviors from past situations.
(c) The Real World/Real People: How Founder Bill Witherspoon Made
Helping Others the Norm at Sky Factory profiles norms of service at
one firm.
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(3) Why Norms are Enforced See Slide 10–23
(a) Norms tend to be enforced by group members when they:
(i) Help the group or organization survive.
(ii) Clarify or simplify behavioral expectations.
(iii)Help individuals avoid embarrassing situations.
(iv)Clarify the group’s or organization’s central values and/or unique
identity.
(b) Table 10-3: Four Reasons Norms Are Enforced provides examples
of the reasons why norms are enforced.
iii) Relevant Research Insights and Managerial Implications
(1) Two meta-analyses indicated that role conflict and role ambiguity were
associated with job dissatisfaction, tension and anxiety, lack of
organizational commitment, intentions to quit, and, to a lesser extent, poor
job performance.
(2) Managers can use feedback, formal rules and procedures, directive
leadership, goal setting, participation, and mentoring to reduce role conflict
and ambiguity.
V. Group Structure and Composition
i) Functional Roles Performed by Group Members
(1) Overview of Functional Roles
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(a) As described in Table 10-4: Functional Roles Performed by Group
Members, both task and maintenance roles need to be performed if a
work group is to accomplish anything.
(2) Task versus Maintenance Roles See Slide 10–24
(a) Task roles: enable the work group to define, clarify, and pursue a
common purpose.
(b) Maintenance roles: foster supportive and constructive interpersonal
relationships.
(c) Task roles keep the group on track while maintenance roles keep the
group together.
(3) Checklist for Managers
(a) Roles listed in Table 10-4 can serve as a handy checklist for managers
and group leaders who wish to ensure proper group development.
See Slide 10–25
(b) Roles that are not always performed when needed can be assigned to
other members.
(c) The task roles of initiator, orienter, and energizer are especially
important because they are goal-directed roles.
(d) International managers need to be sensitive to cultural differences
regarding the relative importance of task and maintenance roles.