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Chapter 07 – Traditional Training Methods

CHAPTER 7

TRADITIONAL TRAINING METHODS

This chapter introduces you to presentational, hands-on, and group training methods, which

include on-the-job training (OJT) (OJT), simulations and games, lectures, and various group

building methods such as action learning and team training. It focuses on the traditional methods

of delivering training. While new technologies have brought new methods to deliver training, the

traditional methods are still employed in virtually all organizations—often in conjunction with

new technologies. The chapter is broken down into “presentation methods,” which are passive

delivery methods and include lecture and audiovisual instruction; “hands-on methods,” which

actively involve the learner and include on-the-job training (OJT), self-directed learning,

apprenticeships, simulation, case study, business games, role plays, and behavior modeling; and

“group building methods,” which are designed to improve work team or group effectiveness and

include adventure learning, team training, and action learning. The important issues to consider

in choosing methods of delivery are discussed. A list of key terms, discussion questions, and

application assignments are listed at the end of the chapter.

Objectives

1. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of presentational, hands-on, and group building

training methods.

2. Provide recommendations for effective on-the-job training (OJT).

3. Develop a case study.

4. Develop a self-directed learning module.

5. Discuss the key components of behavior modeling training.

6. Explain the conditions necessary for adventure learning to be effective.

7. Discuss what team training should focus on to improve team performance.

I. Introduction

A. Traditional training methods require an instructor or facilitator and involve face-to-face

interaction between trainees.

B. Training and development methods such as lectures or online training are directed at the

most common needs in a company.

C. Context-based learning, learning that occurs on the job and during the everyday

performance of work, tends to be more unique to the employee’s needs and includes

training methods such as OJT, simulations, and mobile learning.

D. Both guided competence development and guided contextual learning are usually formal

training activities designed and developed by the company to achieve specific learning

goals.

E. Social competency development enhances specific job-related competencies through

interaction with others such as a mentor or coach, or through encountering challenging

job experiences.

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Chapter 07 – Traditional Training Methods

F. The competencies that are developed are typically not necessary for successful

performance of one’s job but help prepare employees for future roles or positions. As a

result, mentoring, coaching, and job experiences are considered development activities.

G. Recently, training and development have emphasized a more active role for the learner

because of the increased recognition that the learner is at least as important as the

instructor and the learning conditions in determining whether learning occurs.

H. Also, there is increased recognition of the importance of informal learning and the greater

availability and use of technology to deliver instruction or social collaboration.

II. Presentation Methods

Presentation methods are methods in which trainees are passive recipients of information,

that include facts, processes, and problem-solving methods.

Lecture

A. A lecture is the method of training delivery involving a trainer verbally communicating

the material the trainees are to learn.

B. Lecture is relatively inexpensive, and an efficient way to cover a large amount of

information and/or to a large group.

C. Lecture can be used to support other methods of delivery as well.

D. Disadvantages of the lecture method include the lack of trainee involvement, lack of

feedback, and the potentially weak connection to the work environment, all of which

inhibit transfer of training. It also makes it difficult for the trainer to judge quickly and

efficiently the learners’ level of understanding. Thus lecture is often supplemented with

other more participative methods.

Audiovisual Techniques

A. Audiovisual instruction includes overheads, slides, and videotapes.

B. Video is one of the most popular training methods, but is rarely used alone it is usually

used in combination with lectures. It can be highly effective for addressing

communication skills, interviewing skills, customer-service skills, and for illustrating

step-by-step procedures or giving real-life examples of material covered via lecture or

other methods; it is a major component of behavior modeling and interactive video

instruction.

C. The advantages of videos include the flexibility in customizing the video session; the

ability of video to show things that cannot be easily demonstrated; its consistency upon

repeated use; and it can be used to record trainees’ performance for them to review.

D. Disadvantages include too much content for trainees to absorb; poor dialogue or poor

acting could hinder the message and/or the credibility of the message; overuse of music

or humor; and drama that makes it confusing for the trainee to understand the important

learning points emphasized in the video.

III.Hands-On Methods

Hands-on methods are those that require the trainee to be actively involved in the learning

process, including those below.

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Chapter 07 – Traditional Training Methods

On-the-job Training

A. On-the-job training (OJT) involves new or inexperienced employees learning by

observing their peers or managers at work and trying to emulate their behaviors.

B. OJT is considered informal, because it does not necessarily occur as part of a training

program and because managers, peers, or mentors serve as trainers.

C. OJT can be useful for training newly hired employees, upgrading experienced employees’

skills when new technology is introduced, cross-training employees within a department

or work unit, and orienting transferred or promoted employees to their new jobs.

D. OJT, which takes a number of forms including apprenticeships and self-directed learning,

requires less time or money investment.

E. The advantages of OJT are: it can be customized to the experiences and abilities of

trainees; training is immediately applicable to the job because OJT occurs on the job

using actual tools and equipment; companies save the costs related to bringing trainees to

a central location, hiring trainers, and renting training facilities; hence OJT can be offered

at any time, and trainers will be available because they are peers or managers; it uses

actual job tasks and occurs at work, as a result, skills learned in OJT more easily transfer

to the job.

F. The disadvantages of OJT include that it is typically unstructured and, therefore,

managers and peers may not use the same process to complete the same task; bad habits

may be passed on; demonstration may be flawed and the opportunities for practice and

feedback not provided, all resulting in poorly trained employees.

G. OJT must, therefore, be structured to be effective. Table 7.2 on page 285 lists the

principles of structured OJT.

H. Successful OJT incorporates the principles of social learning theory as it involves

learning by observing others.

I. An effective OJT program includes:

1. A policy statement describing the purpose of the OJT and emphasizing the company’s

support of it.

2. A clear specification of who is accountable for conducting OJT. If managers conduct

OJT, this is mentioned in their job descriptions and is part of their performance

evaluations.

3. A thorough review of OJT practices (program content, types of jobs, length of

program, cost savings) at other companies in similar industries.

4. Training of managers and peers in the principles of structured OJT.

5. Availability of lesson plans, checklists, procedure manuals, training manuals, learning

contracts, and progress report forms for use by employees who conduct OJT.

6. Evaluation of employees’ levels of basic skills (reading, computation, writing) before

OJT.

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Chapter 07 – Traditional Training Methods

Self-Directed Learning

A. Self-directed learning is an approach to training that places complete responsibility for

learning on the employee/learner including when the learning will take place and with

whom. Training content is pre-determined, but trainees can learn the content at their own

pace and in their own way. A trainer should be available to answer questions and facilitate

the learning process as needed.

B. The advantages of self-directed learning include the flexibility for trainees to learn at

their own pace and to receive feedback about their learning; it requires fewer training

staff; reduces the costs of facilities and travel; it provides consistent training content that

captures the knowledge of experts; it allows for constant access to training materials; and

makes multiple-site training more realistic.

C. The potential disadvantages of self-directed learning include the responsibility it places

on trainees, requiring them to be willing, able, and motivated to learn on their own. This

may not be comfortable for many employees. It also tends to have higher development

costs in terms of time and money.

D. Steps to effective self-directed learning include:

1. Conducting a job analysis to identify the tasks that need to be covered.

2. Writing trainee-centered learning objectives related to the tasks that indicate what

information is important, what actions the trainee should take and what the trainee

should master.

3. Developing the content for the learning packet based on the trainee-centered learning

objectives.

4. Breaking the content into smaller pieces or chunks, each chunk beginning with the

objectives that will be covered, involving an opportunity to practice, and a means for

trainees to evaluate their learning.

5. Developing an evaluation package, including means of evaluating oneself as well as

the learning package. Questions should be developed that address whether trainees

have met the objectives and whether the material was user friendly, up-to-date, and

appropriate for the objectives.

E. Self-directed learning is likely to become more common in the future as companies seek

to train staff flexibly, take advantage of technology, and encourage employees to be

proactive in their learning rather than driven by the employer.

Apprenticeship

A. Apprenticeship is a work-study type training method involving both on-the-job training

and classroom training and typically sponsored either by the company or by the union. A

registered apprenticeship must involve at least 144 hours of classroom instruction and

2,000 hours (or one year) of on-the-job experience. Once their training is complete,

apprentices are called journey workers and they earn certification from the U.S.

Department of Labor or a state apprenticeship agency.

B. Advantages of apprenticeships include the fact that learners are paid while they learn,

with wages typically increasing as their skills do; the effective combination of learning

principles in the classroom and having the opportunity to practice what they’ve learned

on the job; and that they typically result in full-time employment for trainees. From the

company’s perspective, apprenticeship programs meet specific business training needs

and help attract talented employees.

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Chapter 07 – Traditional Training Methods

C. The disadvantages of apprenticeships include the development costs and time

commitment that management and journey workers have to make to apprenticeship

programs; the historically restricted access to apprenticeship programs for women and

minorities; the lack of guarantee that employment will follow completion of the program;

and the somewhat narrow skill focus of current apprenticeships (i.e., one craft or trade).

Simulations

A. A simulation is a training method that represents a real-life situation; with trainees’

decisions resulting in outcomes that mirror what would happen if they were on the job.

B. Advantages of simulation include allowing trainees to learn production and process skills

first hand without being engaged in the actual flow of production and without the fear of

making a mistake in the actual work environment; allowing for the observation and

evaluation of trainees’ performance followed by feedback.

C. Simulators need to have high fidelity to the work situation, i.e., they need to have

identical elements to those on the job; they are expensive to develop and require

continuous maintenance and updating.

Case Studies

A. A case study is a description about how employees or an organization dealt with a

difficult situation. Trainees are required to analyze and critique the actions taken,

indicating the appropriate actions and suggesting what might have been done differently.

This approach assumes that employees will learn through this process of discovery.

B. The cases are usually appropriate for developing higher-order intellectual skills such as

analysis, synthesis and evaluation, which are needed by managers, physicians and many

other professionals; they help trainees to take risks given uncertain outcomes; and they

require high trainee participation.

C. Learners must be willing and able to analyze cases and have the ability to communicate

their recommendations, so the method requires prior skill in these areas.

D. Existing cases have the advantage of being already prepared, but may not actually relate

to the specific company or work situation.

Business Games

A. Business games require trainee to actively gather information, analyze the information,

and make decisions, typically for the purpose of developing managerial skills. The games

should reflect all aspects of management practice, including labor relations, ethics,

marketing, and finance.

B. Typical games have the following characteristics:

1. The game involves a contest among trainees or teams of trainees or against an

established criterion such as time or quantity.

2. The game is designed to demonstrate an understanding of or application of a

knowledge, skill, or behavior.

3. Several alternative courses of action are available to trainees, and trainees can

estimate the consequences of each alternative, but only with some uncertainty.

4. Trainees do not know for certain what the consequences of their actions will be

because the consequences are partially based on the decisions of other game

participants.

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Chapter 07 – Traditional Training Methods

5. Finally, rules limit participant behavior.

C. To ensure learning and transfer of training, games used in training should be simple

enough that trainees can play them in a short period of time.

D. The best games generate excitement among the participants and interest in the game.

Meaningfulness of the game is enhanced if it is realistic.

E. Trainees need to feel that they are participating in a business and acquiring knowledge,

skills, and behaviors that are useful on the job.

F. Debriefing from a trainer can help trainees understand the game experience and facilitate

learning and transfer. Debriefing can include feedback, discussions of the concepts

presented during the game, and instructions in how to use at work the knowledge, skills,

or behavior emphasized in the game.

Role Plays

A. Role plays to are a training method that requires the trainees take on a role such as a

manager, client, or disgruntled employee, and explore what is involved in the role.

B. To be effective, it is critical that role plays be preceded by an explanation of the purpose

of the activity; clear instructions need to be given; monitoring and feedback from the

facilitator are needed; and debriefing, or helping trainees to understand the experience, is

critical.

Behavior Modeling

A. Behavior modeling is a hands-on method that involves presenting to trainees a model

demonstrating the appropriate key behaviors for the trainees to attempt to replicate

through practice. It is based on social learning theory. Vicarious reinforcement occurs

when a trainee sees a model being reinforced for using certain behaviors.

B. Behavior modeling is appropriate for learning skills and behaviors and is very effective

for teaching interpersonal and computer skills.

C. Developing behavior modeling training involves determining what tasks need to be

addressed and what key behaviors are necessary to complete the task.

1. A key behavior is one of a set of behaviors that are needed to perform a task.

2. Key behaviors for interpersonal skills are not exact behaviors, but rather general

behaviors that are useful across situations.

D. The modeling display provides the key behaviors that trainees will practice to develop the

same set of behaviors. It is typically done through videotape or computer displays.

Effective modeling displays include:

1. Clear presentation of the key behaviors

2. A model that is credible to trainees

3. An overview of the key behaviors

4. Repetition of each key behavior

5. A review of the key behaviors

6. Models using the key behaviors both positively and negatively

E. The most effective practice sessions allow trainees to practice key behaviors multiple

times risk-free with other trainees who understand the company and the job along with

feedback from peers and the trainer. Practice sessions may also be videotaped to allow

trainees to observe themselves.

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Chapter 07 – Traditional Training Methods

F. Application planning is the process for preparing trainees to transfer the key behaviors

back to the job. It involves the trainee preparing a written document specifying situations

in which they should use the key behaviors.

IV. Group Building Methods

A. Group building methods are those designed to improve work team or group effectiveness.

B. A team refers to two or more people with specific roles or functions who work together

with shared responsibility to achieve a common goal or mission or complete tasks in a

company.

C. They involve trainees sharing ideas and experiences, building group identity, generating

an understanding of interpersonal dynamics, and getting to know the strengths and

weaknesses of themselves and their teammates.

D. Group building methods often involve experiential learning. Experiential learning

training programs have four stages:

1. Gain conceptual knowledge and theory

2. Take part in a behavioral simulation

3. Analyze the activity

4. Connect the theory and activity with on-the-job or real-life situations

Adventure Learning

A. Adventure learning, which includes outdoor training, drum circles, and cooking classes,

is a training delivery method aimed at developing teamwork, leadership skills,

self-awareness, and problem solving and conflict management skills, through structured

outdoor. The activities range from highly strenuous and challenging ones, such as dog

sledding or mountain climbing, to less physically challenging ones, such as rope courses,

trust falls, and even simulated high-level activities.

B. To be successful, adventure learning exercises must be related to the skill objectives of

the training. After exercises, the facilitator should lead a discussion about what was

learned, how events in the exercise relate to the job situation, and how to set goals and

apply what was learned on the job.

C. Advantages of adventure learning include allowing trainees to interact and build

relationships with coworkers in a situation not governed by formal business rules; that

trainees share a strong emotional experience which may open them to change; that the

exercises can serve as “metaphors” for organizational events and behaviors; and the

exercises can be highly self-enlightening, invigorating and self-esteem enhancing.

D. Disadvantages include the highly physically demanding and risky nature of many

adventure learning activities; the company’s risk for negligence claims due to personal

injury, emotional distress or invasion of privacy; the high cost of such activities; and the

lack of evidence that transfer of what is learned occurs.

Team Training

A. Team training involves coordinating the performance (i.e., knowledge, attitudes, and

behaviors) of employees who work interdependently to achieve common goals.

B. Together the tools and training methods result in strategies for meeting training

objectives. The strategies include:

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Chapter 07 – Traditional Training Methods

1. Cross-training, or developing an understanding among team members of each other’s

tasks and skills so that each member could cover for the others if needed.

2. Coordination training involves training the team how to share information and

decision making responsibilities for maximum team performance.

3. Team leader training is the training that the team manager or facilitator receives. It

may involve learning how to resolve conflict and how to help the team coordinate

activities and resources.

4. Scenario-based training refers to training that places team members in a realistic

context while learning.

5. Guided team self-correction refers to training that emphasizes continuous learning

and knowledge sharing in teams.

Action Learning

A. Action learning involves providing teams or work groups (usually 6-30 employees) an

actual problem to work on solving through an action plan for which they are held

accountable to carry it out.

B. Six Sigma and kaizen, black belt training programs involve principles of action learning.

1. There are several levels of Six Sigma training, resulting in employees becoming

certified as green belts, champions, or black belts.

2. Between training sessions, candidates apply what they learn to assigned projects and

then use them in the next training session.

3. After black belts lead several project teams, they can take additional training and be

certified as master black belts. Master black belts can teach other black belts and help

senior managers integrate Six Sigma into the company’s business goals.

C. Kaizen, the Japanese word for improvement, is one of the underlying principles of lean

manufacturing and total quality management. Kaizen refers to practices participated in by

employees from all levels of the company that focus on continuous improvement of

business processes.

V. Choosing a Training Method

A. Factors to consider in choosing training methods include: The intended learning

outcomes; the learning environment needed; the issue of transferring learning; cost; and

effectiveness under the given circumstances.

B. The following trends can be noted from the matrix for choosing training methods:

1. There is considerable overlap between learning outcomes across the various training

methods.

2. Most of the hands-on methods provide a better environment for learning and transfer

than the presentation (passive) methods.

C. If possible, one may use several different methods within a single training program to

capitalize on the different strengths of each method for facilitating learning and transfer.

Chapter Summary

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Chapter 07 – Traditional Training Methods

Companies are using a variety of training methods to guide competency development and

contextual learning. Although new technology such as social networks are being used by some

companies for training delivery and instruction, most training is still conducted face to face with

an instructor. This chapter described for the reader a number of traditional methods for delivering

training, from the passive presentation methods to hands-on methods to group building methods.

Each has advantages and disadvantages, which are discussed. It gives the reader an exhaustive

summary of these methodologies, all of which are still used extensively.

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