Chapter 07 – Work Design and Measurement
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Education.
CHAPTER 07
WORK DESIGN AND MEASUREMENT
Teaching Notes
The main topics covered in this chapter are job design and work measurement. You may choose to focus
on one and exclude or de-emphasize the other without affecting material in later chapters. Job design is
qualitative while work measurement is quantitative. Work sampling can be deleted from work
measurement if desired. However, if you intend to cover simulation, you may want to include work
sampling because it introduces use of a random number table.
I find that good class discussions usually occur on job design topics such as automation and fear of job
loss, the use of industrial robots, specialization and productivity, repetitive jobs, efficiency versus
behavioral approaches to job design, and working conditions.
Some instructors like to make this chapter one of the main parts of the course while others de-emphasize
or omit the material. A lot will depend on possible coverage in a management or behavioral science
course that the students may be required to take.
There is a good case at the end of the chapter. “Making Hotplates” involves job enlargement. It is a
qualitative case.
Answers to Discussion and Review Questions
1. Job design is concerned with specifying the contents and methods of jobs. It is important because
it has a significant impact on the efficiency and productivity of workers.
2. From the standpoint of management, having workers with specialized skills can substantially
lower the total cost of a product and also requires less training. The disadvantages for
3. a. Job enlargement involves assigning a larger portion of a task to a worker (i.e., horizontal
loading). Job enrichment involves an increase in the level of responsibility for planning and
coordinating tasks (i.e., vertical loading).
4. a. Ergonomics is the profession that applies theory, principles, data, and methods to job design
to optimize human well-being and overall system performance. Poor ergonomics can cause
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5. A knowledge-based pay system is a pay system used by organizations to reward workers who
undergo training that increases their skills. A portion of a worker’s pay is based on the knowledge
6. a. Self-directed work teams, or self-managed teams, are designed to achieve a higher level of
teamwork and employee involvement. They are typically empowered to make changes in the
3. Greater productivity
4. Higher levels of employee satisfaction
7. Specialization is advantageous in the sense that it allows one to focus concentration on a narrow
aspect of work, and presumably develop an in-depth knowledge of that area. The disadvantage of
8. Motion study principles are guidelines for designing motion-efficient work procedures (see the
9. The need for methods analysis can come from changes in tools and equipment, changes in
product or service design, the introduction of new products, changes in methods or procedures,
10. Flow process charts and man-machine charts are useful in reviewing and analyzing operations in
terms of sequence and workflow. They provide a visual model of the work.
11. A time standard reflects the length of time that a given task should take a qualified worker who
12. The information provided by the time study is useful for scheduling, budgeting, labor planning,
cost and time estimation, designing incentive systems, and so on.
13. No, a group of workers might all be slower or faster than average; there is no reason to expect
that performance of a group will average out.
Chapter 07 – Work Design and Measurement
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Education.
b. If the standard times are not updated enough, the estimated completion time of many jobs
will be wrong and the resulting plan and the production schedule will be erroneous.
did not result in any significant change in estimating the standard time.
c. The trade-offs when choosing between time study and work sampling involve cost, time,
effort, disruption, detail on the elements of a job, and the nature of the job for which each is
appropriate. Time study costs more, requires more time, requires more effort (analysts must
time workers), and disrupts the work (possibly making the workers resentful). However, time
2. The operations function uses work study information to balance production lines, for workforce
planning, for productivity estimates, for input into incentive plans, for coordinating activities and
3. Technology affects design in two major ways. One relates to processing technology and the other
relates to technology-based products and services. Both must be taken into account. Thus, as
processing technology evolves, or new processing technology is introduced, those changes
generally require new ways of working. Similarly, as product or service technology evolves or
new technology is introduced, those changes generally affect how work is performed, as well as
packaging.
Critical Thinking Exercises
1. High employee turnover could be due to a number of factors. Morale may be low, and pay may
be too low. Employee interviews and managerial observation would be needed to assess the
2. Student answers will vary. Examples of an unethical behavior for each of the five major topics in
this chapter follow:
a. Job Design: If a manager focused too much on efficiency and narrowed jobs so much that
workers became depressed, this action would violate the Utilitarian Principle.
b. Quality of Work Life: If a company paid workers with the same amount of seniority
performing identical tasks different amounts of hourly pay, this action would violate the
Fairness Principle.
c. Methods Analysis: If a manager targeted an operation to study because the manager did not
like an employee, this action would violate the Fairness Principle and the Virtue Principle.
d. Motion Study: If an analysis made an error in a motion study that actually increased worker
fatigue, this action would violate the Utilitarian Principle.
e. Work Measurement: If a manager used a worker for a time study because the manager knew
some type of dark secret about that worker, and thus expected the worker to provide
management with “good” results, this action would violate the Rights Principle and the
Virtue Principle.
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Education.
Solutions
1. Given: Average time = 10.40 minutes. Standard deviation = 1.20 minutes for a worker with a
performance rating of 125%. Assume an allowance of 16% of job time.
Standard Time = Normal Time x Allowance Factor
ST = NT x AF
2. Given: Average time = 1.2 minutes per piece. Performance rating = 95%. Workday allowances =
10%.
a. Observed Time (OT) = 1.2 minutes
b. Normal Time (NT):
NT = Observed Time x Performance Rating
c. Standard Time:
Standard Time = Normal Time x Allowance Factor
ST = NT x AF
Chapter 07 – Work Design and Measurement
3. Given: A time study was conducted of a job with four elements. The observed times and
performance ratings for six cycles are shown in the table below. Allowance factor = 15% of job
time.
OBSERVATIONS (minutes per cycle)
Element
PR
1
3
4
5
6
1
.90
0.44
0.43
0.45
0.48
0.46
2
.85
1.50
1.47
1.51
1.49
1.52
3
1.10
0.84
0.77
0.83
0.85
0.80
4
1.00
1.10
1.08
1.20
1.16
1.26
a. Average cycle time (OT) for each element (round to 2 decimals):
OBSERVATIONS (minutes per cycle)
Element
1
2
3
4
5
6
Average
(OT)
(min.)
1
0.44
0.50
0.43
0.45
0.48
0.46
0.46
2
1.50
1.54
1.47
1.51
1.49
1.52
1.51
3
0.84
0.89
0.77
0.83
0.85
0.80
0.83
4
1.10
1.14
1.08
1.20
1.16
1.26
1.16
b. Normal Time (NT) for each element (round to 2 decimals):
NT = Observed Time x Performance Rating
Element
Average
(OT)
PR
NT
(OT x PR)
1
0.46
0.41
2
1.51
.85
1.28
3
0.83
0.91
4
1.16
1.16
c. Standard time for this job (round to 2 decimals):
Standard Time = Normal Time x Allowance Factor
1
0.41
2
1.28
4
1.16
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4. Given: A time study was conducted of four elements of a job. The observed times and
performance ratings for six cycles are shown in the table below.
OBSERVATIONS (minutes per cycle)
Element
1
2
4
5
6
1
4.1
4.0
4.1
4.1
4.1
2
—
1.5
1.6
—
1.4
3
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.3
3.3
4
2.7
2.8
2.8
2.8
2.8
OBSERVATIONS (minutes per cycle)
Element
1
2
3
4
5
6
OT (min.)
1
4.1
4.0
4.2
4.1
4.1
4.1
4.10
2
—
1.5
—
1.6
—
1.4
1.50
3
3.2
3.2
3.3
3.2
3.3
3.3
3.25
4
2.7
2.8
2.8
2.8
2.8
2.77
5. Given: A time study was conducted of five elements of a job. The observed times and
performance ratings for six cycles are shown in the table below.
OBSERVATIONS (minutes per cycle)
Element
1
2
4
5
6
1
2.1
2.0
2.1
2.1
—
2
—
1.1
1.0
—
1.2
3
3.4
3.5
3.5
3.4
3.3
4
4.0
—
4.2
—
—
5
1.4
1.4
1.5
1.5
1.4
OBSERVATIONS (minutes per cycle)
Element
1
2
3
4
5
6
OT (min.)
1
2.1
2.0
2.2
2.1
2.1
—
2.10
2
—
1.1
—
1.0
—
1.2
1.10
3
3.4
3.5
3.3
3.5
3.4
3.3
3.40
4
4.0
—
—
4.2
—
—
4.10
5
1.4
1.4
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.4
1.45
Chapter 07 – Work Design and Measurement
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Education.
6. Given: Typical allowance percentages for working conditions are provided on p. 306. A worker
must lift 10 pounds while (1) standing in a slightly awkward position, (2) in light that is slightly
below recommended standards, and (3) with intermittent loud noises occurring. Monotony for the
job is high. Include a personal allowance of 5% and basic fatigue allowance of 4% of job time.
Allowance % for Job Element
Factor
%
Lifting 10 pounds
1
Standing
2
Slightly awkward position
0
Bad light (slightly below
recommended)
0
Intermittent loud noises
2
Monotony high
4
Personal allowance
5
Basic fatigue allowance
4
Total:
18%
7. Given: Average time (machine) = 3.3 minutes per cycle. Average time (worker) = 1.9 minutes
per cycle. Performance rating (machine) = 100%. Performance rating (worker) = 120%. Midway
through the study, the worker took a 10-minute rest break. Allowance factor = 12% of work time.
Normal times for both (round to 2 decimals):
Standard Time = Normal Time x Allowance Factor
ST = NT x AF
ST (machine) = 3.30 x 1.00 = 3.30 minutes
ST (worker):
Chapter 07 – Work Design and Measurement
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Education.
8. Given: Worker rest time = 24 minutes, personal time = 10 minutes, and delay time = 14 minutes
for each 4 hours worked. Time study average time = 6.0 minutes per cycle for a worker and the
worker’s performance rating = 0.95.
Standard Time = Normal Time x Allowance Factor
ST = NT x AF
ST = NT x AFday = 5.70 minutes x 1.250 = 7.13 minutes (round to 2 decimals)
9. Given: An analyst observed a financial manager’s assistant perform a job with three elements and
observed five cycles for each element. The analyst recorded the times and the performance
ratings for each element in the table below.
Observations (minutes per cycle)
Element
Performance
Rating
1
2
3
4
5
A
0.90
1.40
1.42
1.39
1.38
1.41
B
1.20
2.10
2.05
2.00
1.85
1.80
C
1.10
1.60
1.40
1.50
1.45
1.55
a. Given: Allowance = 10% of job time
Observed time (OT) = average cycle time for each element (round to 2 decimals):
Observations (minutes per cycle)
Element
1
2
3
4
5
OT
(min.)
A
1.40
1.42
1.39
1.38
1.41
1.40
B
2.10
2.05
2.00
1.85
1.80
1.96
C
1.60
1.40
1.50
1.45
1.55
1.50
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Education.
Normal Time (NT) for each element (round to 2 decimals):
NT = Observed Time x Performance Rating
Element
OT
NT
(OT x PR)
A
1.40
1.26
B
1.96
2.35
C
1.50
1.65
Standard Time (round to 2 decimals):
Standard Time = Normal Time x Allowance Factor
ST = NT x AF
AFjob = 1 + A, where A = Allowance % based on job time
AFjob = 1 + .10 = 1.10
A
1.26
1.10
1.39
B
2.35
1.10
2.59
C
1.65
1.10
1.82
b. Given: Desired accuracy for mean time of Element A = within 4% of the true value with a
confidence of 98%.
where:
z = Number of normal standard deviations for desired confidence
s = Sample standard deviation
a = Desired accuracy %
Sample mean