!
CHALLENGES)OF)TEACHING)NEGOTIATION*!
Roy!J.!Lewicki!
ESSENTIALS(OF(NEGOTIATION(6e(
LEWICKI(▪(BARRY(▪(SAUNDERS(
!
An!earlier!version!of!this!article!originally!appeared!in!Negotiation!Journal.!The!
article!explains!some!of!the!ways!that!teaching!negotiation!is!different!from!other!
experiential@based!courses,!uses!a!well!known!model!of!experiential!learning!to!
explain!the!various!vehicles!for!learning!in!the!course,!discusses!some!general!
problems!in!structuring!a!negotiation!course,!and!describes!some!of!the!unique!
challenges!that!are!created!for!instructors!in!these!courses.!!For!those!who!do!not!
have!extensive!teaching!experience!in!this!area,!the!article!creates!an!appropriate!
groundwork!for!understanding!the!course!specifics!that!we!describe!on!this!
website.!References!and!language!have!been!updated!as!appropriate.!
!
Courses!in!negotiation!are!a!mature!academic!industry.!!In!the!mid@1970s,!when!I!first!
taught!a!negotiation!course!to!students!in!a!graduate!school!of!business,!there!were!
perhaps!two!or!three!other!comparable!courses!in!the!United!States.!!Reading!and!case!
materials!at!that!time!were!drawn!largely!from!labor!relations,!social!psychology,!and!
international!diplomacy.!!Simulation!materials!were!adapted!from!game!theory,!collective!
bargaining!and!psychological!experiments.!!Only!one!or!two!practitioner@oriented!trade!
books!were!available!in!the!marketplace.!
!
! Today,!negotiation!courses!are!staples!of!the!curriculum!in!business!schools,!law!
schools,!public!policy!schools,!schools!of!international!relations,!and!undergraduate!
curricula.!!Case!studies!and!simulations!are!regularly!developed!to!analyze!and!enact!
negotiation!in!each!of!these!environments!and!contexts.!!Research!emphasis!has!largely!
moved!from!the!development!of!new!theoretical!bases!to!applications!and!the!analysis!of!
negotiations!in!situational!context.!!Practitioner!oriented!books!on!negotiation!abound,!and!
comprehensive!textbooks!are!beginning!to!appear.!!Finally,!seminars!for!executives!and!
practitioners!are!available!from!many!training!organizations!and!consulting!firms.!
!
! My!purpose!in!this!article!is!to!outline!some!of!the!central!problems,!issues!and!
dilemmas!of!teaching!negotiation.!!While!some!of!these!problems!are!not!unique!to!
teaching!negotiation!skills!(and!related!courses!in!power!and!conflict!management—see!
the!bibliography!and!‘Additional!Resources’!section!of!this!website),!others!specifically!
arise!because!of!the!nature!of!the!subject!matter!and!the!pedagogical!style!necessary!to!
create!a!rich!and!challenging!learning!environment.!
!
A)Model)for)Teaching)Negotiation)Skills)
!
! Most!negotiation!courses!as!a!combination!of!theory!and!research,!descriptive!and!
prescriptive!models,!and!experiential!activities!such!as!role!playing!and!cases.!There!are!
*!Adapted!from!an!article!that!first!appeared!in!Negotiation!Journal,!January!1986,!pp.!15@27.!
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several!key!assumptions!about!the!teaching!and!learning!of!negotiation!that,!though!they!
may!seem!obvious,!should!be!stated!explicitly.!
! First,!negotiation!is!a!comprehensible!social!process.!Negotiation!is!not!a!mystical!
process!in!a!black!box;!it!can!be!analyzed,!understood,!and!modeled.!!Second,!negotiation!is!
a!learnable!and!teachable!skill.!Negotiators!are!made,!not!born,!and!skills!can!be!improved!
and!relearned!throughout!life.!!Finally,!change!and!improvement!in!negotiating!behavior!
require!a!combination!of!intellectual!training!and!behavioral!skill!development.!!Thus,!the!
most!effective!approaches!to!teaching!negotiation!will!integrate!intellectual!analysis!and!
skill!development!in!a!complete!pedagogical!package.!
!
! To!demonstrate!how!skill!development!and!theory!may!be!integrated!together!in!
teaching!negotiation,!I!will!employ!a!simple,!broad@based!model!of!experiential!learning!
(Figure!1).!This!model,!derived!from!the!work!of!Kolb,!Rubin!and!McIntyre!(1983),!
proposes!that!learning!occurs!in!four!interrelated!steps!(beginning!at!the!bottom!of!the!
circle!and!moving!clockwise):!
!
!
!!
!
!
•!! The!development!(or!external!introduction)!of!Abstract!Concepts,!theory!and!
generalizations,!which!leads!to!
!
Concrete
experiences
Testing
implications
of concepts
Formation of
abstract concepts
and
generalizations
Observations
and
reflections
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•!! Predictions,!hypotheses,!or!Testing!of!the!Implications!of!these!Concepts,!which!
leads!to!!
•!! Actual!behavior!and!Concrete!Experiences,!which!leads!to!
!
•!!Observations!and!Reflections!on!that!behavior,!which!leads!back!to!further!concepts!
and!generalizations!(theory).!
!
!Students!can!begin!anywhere!in!this!cycle!to!assess!their!behavior!or!to!change!it.!!
For!instance,!athletes!who!want!to!improve!their!tennis!swing!might!begin!this!process!by!
becoming!more!aware!of!their!current!swing!or!watching!it!on!video!(actual!behavior!and!
reflection).!!This!then!leads!to!an!effort!to!define!why!the!swing!is!poor!(reflection!and!
principles),!followed!by!an!intention!to!change!the!wrist!position!while!swinging!
(principles!and!intentions),!and!then!a!change!in!the!way!the!racket!is!swung!(behavior).!!
Similarly!watching!a!video!of!a!professional!tennis!player!or!reading!a!book!about!tennis!
would!be!an!infusion!of!principles,!leading!to!intentions!to!behave!differently;!actually!
taking!a!lesson!would!be!an!introduction!of!principles!and!some!“practice”!(new!behavior,!
reflection,!intention!to!behave!differently,!and!more!new!behavior).!
!
! This!model!is!useful!in!several!ways.!!First,!it!applies!to!many!different!situations!
where!skills!are!learned!and!developed,!and!allows!us!to!break!down!the!skill!development!
process!into!its!component!parts.!!Second,!since!the!learning!model!has!several!component!
parts,!it!is!most!useful!to!structure!the!learning!process!to!bolster!each!of!the!elements.!!
Finally,!there!are!several!competing!theories!as!to!the!optimal!place!to!“enter”!this!learning!
circle.!!I!will!note!some!of!these!competing!theories!in!the!discussion!that!follows.!
!
Structuring)The)Course)
!
! While!it!is!possible!that!some!doctoral@level!instructors!may!wish!to!teach!only!
theory!and!research,!instructors!at!other!levels!generally!want!to!structure!a!course!that!is!
designed!to!improve!the!student’s!negotiating!behavior.!!In!particular,!courses!designed!for!
executives!or!MBA!students!should!offer!a!blend!of!theory!and!skill!practice,!since!these!
students!are!primarily!interested!in!improving!their!negotiating!behavior.!!Courses!
structured!in!this!way!are!more!likely!to!help!the!student!recognize!the!relation!between!
theoretical!principles!and!actual!behavior,!thereby!preparing!the!student!to!negotiate!more!
effectively.!!Finally,!experiential!components!add!a!dimension!that!makes!the!course!more!
interesting,!enjoyable,!exciting,!and!relevant!to!both!student!and!instructor.!
!
! There!are!many!ways!to!structure!a!negotiation!course!@@!in!terms!of!the!topics!
covered,!intellectual!and!experiential!materials!used,!etc.!.!!Since!I!am!not!proposing!that!
there!is!one!definitive!way!to!teach!this!topic,!the!following!ideas!are!intended!as!
suggestions!only.!!However,!an!ideal!course!structure!should!emphasize!each!of!the!four!
stages!in!the!experiential!model,!and!I!shall!make!specific!recommendations!regarding!
course!design!elements!that!may!be!used!for!each!stage.!
!
!Theory)and)Concepts!@!Most!academic!courses!emphasize!theory!and!scholarly!
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research.!!Negotiation!is!no!exception.!!There!is!a!large!volume!of!material!available!on!the!
negotiation!process,!written!from!many!different!perspectives!(e.g.,!psychology,!economics,!
communications,!sociology,!law,!and!political!science).!!Instructors!seem!to!prefer!all!
varieties!of!textbooks,!research!books!and!articles,!or!mass@market!publications!written!
largely!for!practitioners.!!The!following!topics!are!addressed!in!most!negotiation!courses!
through!lectures!or!assigned!readings:!
!
1.! The!dynamics!of!interpersonal!and!inter@group!conflict,!
2.! An!overview!of!the!negotiation!process;!
3.! The!economic!structure!of!negotiation,!and!some!exposure!to!game@theoretic!
models;!
4.! The!basics!of!competitive,!distributive,!win@lose!negotiation;!
5.!The!basics!of!collaborative,!integrative,!win@win!negotiation;!
6.!Negotiator!ethics;!
7.!The!use!of!power,!and!negotiating!in!unequal!power!relations;!
8.! Communication!and!perception!dynamics;!
9.!Multiparty!negotiations,!including!negotiating!coalitions,!and!negotiations!within!
groups!and!teams!
10.!The!nature!of!negotiations!across!national!cultures;!
11.!Individual!differences!in!personality!and!gender!as!they!affect!negotiations;!
12.! Approaches!for!resolving!unproductive!negotiations,!including!the!use!of!third!
parties.!
!
!Intentions/Predictions!@!Intentions!and!predictions!are!ways!that!the!negotiator!
translates!theory!and!concepts!into!practice.!!Whether!it!is!a!desire!to!try!a!different!
strategy!in!negotiation,!or!apply!a!concept!from!the!reading,!students!should!be!specifically!
encouraged!to!engage!in!planning!and!goal!setting!prior!to!negotiations.!!This!may!be!
accomplished!in!the!following!ways:!
!
1.!Requiring)students)to)engage)in)a)planning)process!prior!to!simulated!
negotiations,!or!to!real@world!experiences.!!Planning!may!include!preparation!of!
information!and!arguments,!setting!negotiation!goals!and!objectives,!predicting!the!
opponent’s!objectives!and!personal!style,!and!selecting!a!strategy!to!achieve!the!
goals.!!
!
2.!Requiring)students)to)“experiment”)with)new)behaviors.!!Instructors!often!make!
a!point!to!encourage!students!to!simply!try!out!different!negotiating!styles!and!
approaches.!Students!may!be!encouraged!to!try!more!cooperative!or!competitive!
behavior,!be!more!or!less!talkative,!or!assume!positions!of!power!contrary!to!their!
normal!experience.!!The!assumption!is!that!the!class!provides!a!safe!environment!in!
which!to!try!new!behavior!and!gain!feedback!from!others,!but!without!endangering!
the!substance!of!an!agreement!or!the!long@term!relationship!between!the!parties!
that!is!at!stake!in!real!negotiations.!
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!
! Students!may!also!be!specifically!encouraged!to!practice!the!prescribed!behaviors!of!
a!particular!model,!such!as!different!ways!to!achieve!integrative!agreements,!or!different!
ways!to!act!as!a!third!party!in!resolving!a!dispute.!!Finally,!students!might!learn!new!
behaviors!by!imitating!a!model!that!negotiates!correctly!(according!to!some!prescriptive!
theory!or!framework).!!This!process!is!analogous!to!watching!the!tennis!pro’s!technique!
with!a!backhand!swing,!or!watching!video,!and!then!trying!it!yourself.!!While!behavioral!
modeling!has!been!used!a!great!deal!as!a!way!to!master!complex!skills,!remarkably!little!if!
any!training!in!negotiation!has!used!either!live!or!video!models!as!a!way!to!teach!
negotiation!skills.!
!
!Actual)Behavior!@!The!primary!vehicle!for!introducing!actual!negotiating!behavior!
in!class!is!through!role@playing!and!simulations.!!Some!instructors!use!role@plays!and!
simulations!at!the!beginning!of!a!course,!to!acquaint!students!with!the!behavioral!dynamics!
before!the!conceptual!material!is!addressed;!others!use!them!in!the!middle!or!later!parts!of!
the!course,!to!illustrate!key!principles!or!demonstrate!the!complexity!of!a!large!inter@group!
negotiation;!still!others!use!them!throughout!the!course,!beginning!with!simple!scenarios!
(games!and!one!issue!negotiations),!and!building!toward!more!complex!negotiations!as!the!
course!progresses.!
!
!Role@plays!and!simulations!may!be!conducted!during!class!time,!or!they!may!be!set!
up!at!the!end!of!a!class,!to!be!completed!by!the!students!on!their!own.!!I!suggest!instructors!
use!several!of!each!kind.!!In@class!activities!allow!the!instructor!to!describe!the!simulation!
and!instructions!clearly,!monitor!student!behavior!closely,!and!debrief!events!“on!the!spot.”!!
However,!simulation!effectiveness!may!be!constrained!if!the!classroom!facility!does!not!
have!sufficient!“break!out”!space!for!groups!to!meet!and!work!independently,!or!if!the!
allotted!time!is!inadequate.!!In!contrast,!simulations!apart!from!classes!allow!students!to!
prepare!at!their!leisure,!control!(and!manipulate)!the!time!and!place!of!negotiation,!meet!as!
often!as!is!necessary,!use!breaks!and!recesses!strategically,!etc.!!A!twenty@minute!in@class!
simulation!between!very!competitive!students!may!consume!three!or!four!hours!outside!of!
class.!
!
!Grading!@!Several!instructors!have!experimented!with!grading!students!on!their!
negotiating!behavior.!!Some!use!simulations!that!allow!various!settlement!packages!to!be!
scored!with!point!schemes!(c.f.!some!of!the!DRRC!exercises)!and!assign!grades!based!on!the!
number!of!points!won.!!With!other!simulations,!grades!can!be!determined!on!the!basis!of!
who!negotiated!the!better!package!for!each!party!in!the!dispute,!or!who!invented!the!most!
integrative!solutions.!!Unfortunately,!there!appear!to!be!very!few!efforts!to!evaluate!
students!on!the!effectiveness!of!their!behavior!rather!than!on!outcomes.!
!
Grading!on!the!basis!of!actual!negotiating!outcomes!is!viewed!as!realistic!by!some!
students,!particularly!those!who!already!negotiate!well,!but!as!troublesome!by!those!who!
expect!to!have!their!performance!judged!by!more!traditional!academic!methods.!
!
!Reaction)and)Reflection!@!Negotiation!instructors!who!use!simulations!must!also!
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devote!ample!class!time!to!debriefing!students!about!these!experiences.!There!are!several!
objectives!for!the!debriefing!process:!
!
1.! To!compare!and!evaluate!the!different!outcomes!achieved!by!different!subgroups;!
2.! To!compare!and!evaluate!the!different!planning!and!strategizing!processes!that!led!
to!these!outcomes;!
3.! To!help!students!compare!and!evaluate!the!differences!between!their!intended!
actions!and!what!may!have!actually!occurred;!
4.!To!use!the!simulation!to!highlight!key!conceptual!and!theoretical!points;!
5.!To!create!the!opportunity!for!students!to!note!deficiencies!in!their!own!behavior,!or!
the!negotiation!process,!and!to!define!@@implicitly!or!explicitly!@@new!or!different!
ways!to!behave.!
!
! There!are!many!ways!to!achieve!the!reaction!and!reflection!objectives!through!
course!structure!and!design.!!First,!students!may!discuss!the!simulation!after!it!has!
occurred,!or!they!may!complete!some!form!of!standard!“debriefing”!questionnaire.!!Second,!
simulations!may!be!videod,!and!students!may!be!asked!to!watch!and!critique!their!
behavior.!!Third,!students!may!be!asked!to!prepare!a!formal!written!analysis!of!the!
simulation,!applying!theories!and!concepts!to!the!situation!or!setting!explicit!goals!for!
future!behavior.!!Instructors!frequently!use!these!application!papers!or!journals!to!
encourage!students!to!monitor!their!own!behavior!and!apply!theory!as!appropriate.!!
Finally,!students!may!also!be!required!to!complete!a!comprehensive!assessment!of!their!
own!“negotiating!style.”!!Data!for!this!assessment!can!be!generated!from!reflection!on!their!
behavior!in!the!simulations,!feedback!from!other!students!and!by!completing!one!or!more!
personality!self@assessment!questionnaires!on!dimensions!related!to!negotiation!@@!such!as!
conflict!management!style,!assertiveness,!ethics,!etc.!
!
! Negotiation!case!studies!are!another!major!learning!vehicle!in!the!reaction!and!
reflection!phase.!!Cases!expose!students!to!the!negotiating!behavior!of!others,!encouraging!
examination!of!behavior!in!the!context!in!which!it!occurs.!!Theories,!concepts!and!models!
are!also!provided!to!enrich!intellectual!comprehension.!!Cases!are!discussed!in!class!or!may!
be!given!as!examinations!to!test!successful!analysis!and!application!of!theory.!!Videos!are!
also!good!case!material,!allowing!students!the!opportunity!to!observe!nonverbal!behavior!
and!strategic!nuances!as!well!as!negotiation!techniques.!!Unfortunately,!few!quality!case@
oriented!films!and!videos!have!been!available!for!instructional!use!(see!the!Additional!
Resources!file),!but!this!situation!is!changing.!Instructors!and!encouraged!to!use!a!major!
search!engine,!searching!“Negotiation!Videos’,!as!this!situation!changes!rapidly.!!
!
!Differences)Among)Learning)Populations!@!Whether!the!instructional!module!is!
two!hours,!one!day,!three!days!or!an!entire!semester,!the!instructional!design!should!
include!all!four!elements!of!the!experiential!learning!module.!!This!cycle!may!be!completed!
once!in!a!short!program,!or!multiple!times!in!a!longer!program!or!course.!!Measurement!
may!be!formal,!as!in!graded!examinations!and!papers,!or!informal,!as!by!simply!noting!
behavior.!!Moreover,!students!should!be!encouraged!to!continue!to!keep!a!personal!journal!
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to!monitor!their!negotiating!behavior!and!compare!goals!set!prior!to!actual!negotiations!
with!the!results!of!the!process.!!As!in!any!skill!development!program,!consistent!monitoring!
and!practice!of!new!and!different!behavior!is!more!likely!to!lead!to!behavior!change!and!
enhanced!effectiveness.!
!
!In!addition,!different!student!populations!should!probably!receive!varying!exposure!
to!different!components!of!the!learning!module.!University!students!are!more!comfortable!
with!theory!and!abstraction,!and!more!able!to!work!with!conceptual!models!that!may!not!
have!ready!application.!!In!contrast,!executives!and!practitioners!are!generally!immersed!in!
the!behavioral!dynamics!of!the!process,!but!are!less!facile!with!the!complex!theoretical!
abstractions.!!Instructors!working!with!these!latter!groups!will!find!it!more!useful!to!limit!
conceptual!input!to!“friendly!theories”:!those!that!are!less!abstract,!or!immediately!tied!to!
in@class!simulations,!case!analyses,!or!elaborate,!relevant!examples.!
!
Unique)Problems)In)Teaching)Negotiation)
!
!I!believe!that!teaching!negotiation!and!conflict!management!creates!several!unique!
challenges!and!problems!that!instructors!do!not!typically!encounter!in!other!courses.!!I!will!
now!describe!some!of!these!challenges.!
!
1.!!The)Volatility)and)Unpredictability)of)Classroom)Dynamics.!!Most!negotiation!
instructors!are!intellectually!aware!of!the!dynamics!of!conflict.!!Competitiveness!and!
conflict!lead!to!heightened!emotions,!distortion!of!perception!and!judgment,!misattribution!
of!the!causes!of!behavior,!heightened!cohesiveness!in!one’s!own!group,!and!the!enhanced!
likelihood!of!behaving!unproductively!and!unethically.!!However,!it!is!one!thing!to!
understand!these!dynamics!intellectually!and!recognize!them!in!others,!and!another!to!
experience!and!manage!them.!
!
! Because!of!these!dynamics,!courses!in!conflict,!power,!and!negotiation!often!
energize!and!motivate!students,!making!classes!exciting.!!Events!occur!that!students!
remember!long!after!the!course!is!over!and!the!intellectual!content!is!forgotten.!!There!is,!
however,!a!negative!side!to!these!dynamics:!!students!will!often!be!angry!at!one!another!
and!sometimes!at!the!instructor.!!They!will!say!things!they!don’t!mean,!and!do!things!for!
which!they!do!not!understand!the!consequences.!!They!will!get!carried!away!by!the!
moment!yet!be!surprised!or!even!remorseful!later.!
!
! The!instructor,!who!cannot!run!away!from!such!situations,!must!be!comfortable!
around!others!who!are!in!conflict.!!Sometimes!an!instructor!is!unwittingly!entrapped!in!
these!dynamics,!becoming!“part!of!the!problem”!rather!than!an!uninvolved!observer.!!
Because!classroom!events!are!not!always!predictable!and!plan@able,!an!instructor!of!a!
course!dealing!with!negotiation!and!conflict!management!should!be!prepared!to!address,!
manage,!and!integrate!spontaneous!classroom!events!with!the!learning!objectives!of!the!
course.!
!
2.!!Multiple)Instructor)Roles.!!In!a!traditional!academic!course,!the!instructor!has!clear@
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cut!role!responsibilities:!to!structure!a!coherent!course!outline,!lecture,!facilitate!
discussion,!and!evaluate!student!performance.!!However,!by!virtue!of!the!variety!of!
educational!experiences!described!earlier,!as!well!as!the!unpredictability!of!conflict!
dynamics,!instructors!in!negotiation!courses!are!placed!in!multiple!(and!often!conflicting)!
roles.!!Instructors!must!continue!to!act!as!formal!educators,!but!also!have!enhanced!
responsibilities!as!classroom!managers,!referees,!mediators!and!counselors.!!While!these!
roles!and!accompanying!responsibilities!may!appear!to!be!distinct!and!explicit,!in!practice!
they!are!frequently!vague!or!in!direct!conflict.!!Following!are!some!guidelines!for!each!role:!
!
!Educator/Evaluator.!!The!instructor’s!responsibilities!are,!as!just!outlined,!to!
structure!the!course,!to!be!an!expert!in!the!conceptual!foundations!of!conflict!and!
negotiation,!to!convey!that!expertise!through!lectures!or!readings,!to!facilitate!classroom!
discussion,!and!to!evaluate!student!learning!and!performance.!
!
!Classroom)Manager.!!The!instructor’s!job!is!to!orchestrate!the!learning!experience.!!
Role@plays!need!to!be!planned!with!regard!to!preparation!and!distribution!of!materials,!
securing!adequate!facilities,!time!scheduling,!and!organizing!students!into!groups.!!Before!
an!exercise!is!concluded,!students!should!discuss!the!exercise!and!abstract!key!points.!!
Simulations!are!useless!activities!without!this!analysis.!!Finally,!applications!should!be!
drawn!to!the!major!conceptual!points.!
!
!Regulator/Referee.!!The!instructor’s!responsibilities!are!to!define!the!boundaries!
for!appropriate!and!inappropriate!behavior!in!the!classroom!and!in!simulations.!!The!
instructor!will!frequently!become!the!policeman,!prosecutor,!judge!and!jury!in!setting!and!
enforcing!rules.!!Some!of!those!rules!are!academic,!while!others!are!procedural!and!relate!
to!the!simulation.!!The!instructor!must!decide!which!rules!to!make,!how!to!enforce!them,!
and!what!to!do!when!they!are!broken.!
!
!Mediator/Counselor.!!Finally,!as!noted!earlier,!students!often!become!angry!and!
entrapped!in!the!conflict!dynamics.!!Negotiations!may!have!deadlocked,!or!ended!in!
betrayal.!!Yet!for!the!educational!process!to!proceed,!students!must!be!able!to!detach!
themselves!sufficiently!to!assess!events!and!behavior!and!move!on!to!other!activities.!!The!
instructor’s!job!is!to!help!the!class!achieve!this!balance,!and!frequently!requires!
intervention!as!a!mediator!or!counselor.!
!
! Role!conflict!for!the!instructor!consistently!occurs!among!these!various!role!
responsibilities.!!These!conflicts!arise!when!student!and!instructor!disagree!on!the!
appropriate!role!to!be!taken,!or!when!an!instructor!must!assume!several!different!roles!and!
each!prescribes!a!different!behavior.!!Management!of!these!conflicts!can!significantly!
enhance!or!detract!from!the!instructor’s!enjoyment!of!a!course,!student!learning!in!a!
course,!and!student!satisfaction!with!the!course.!!Examples!of!such!conflict!are:!
!
Students!try!to!anticipate!the!instructor’s!implicit!models!for!effective!
negotiating!behavior.!!As!a!result,!they!are!afraid!to!be!spontaneous,!take!
risks!or!try!new!behaviors!because!they!believe!the!instructor!will!use!grades!
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to!punish!them!(conflict!between!the!Evaluator!and!Educator!roles).!
!
Instructors!must!decide!whether!to!allow!students!to!behave!destructively,!
and!to!discover!the!consequences!for!themselves,!as!opposed!to!stopping!
that!behavior!and!depriving!the!student!of!the!learning!experience.!!Similarly,!
instructors!must!decide!when!to!stop!a!simulation!to!curtail!escalating!
conflict!(Educator!and!Referee!roles).!
!
Instructors!often!require!students!to!analyze!their!behavior!through!self@
assessment!papers!and!journals.!!Some!of!the!least!experienced!and!most!
destructive!student!negotiators!are!blind!to!their!own!behavior!and!the!
consequences!it!has!for!others.!!Instructors!need!to!critique!this!behavior!in!
their!feedback!on!the!paper;!yet!the!student!must!believe!that!the!academic!
grade!awarded!on!the!papers!reflects!the!quality!of!analysis,!not!the!behavior!
itself.!!In!short,!academic!assessments!must!be!seen!as!independent!of!
judgments!about!the!effectiveness!of!negotiating!behavior!(Evaluator!and!
Counselor!role).!
!
Resolution)of)Instructor)Role)Conflict.!!The!examples!just!noted!are!only!a!few!of!the!role!
conflicts!the!instructor!will!experience.!!Each!conflict!offers!the!instructor!a!dilemma!and!a!
choice!point!for!effective!course!management.!!Based!on!my!experience,!there!are!several!
key!principles!that!may!be!used!to!guide!the!instructor’s!resolution!of!these!choice!
dilemmas:!
!
Be!explicit!with!students!about!the!instructor’s!multiple!role!responsibilities,!
and!the!inevitability!of!role!conflict!@@!whether!real!or!perceived.!!These!
possible!role!conflicts!should!be!discussed!on!the!first!day!of!class,!when!
students!may!hear!the!problem!but!not!understand!it.!!They!may!then!be!
repeated!as!the!need!arises!in!the!course.!
!
Be!explicit!with!students!in!advance!about!the!formal!criteria!for!grading!in!
the!course,!and!how!the!criteria!will!be!applied.!!This!is!a!principle!of!good!
teaching!in!any!classroom,!but!it!is!even!more!critical!in!a!negotiation!course.!!
Explicit!and!independent!criteria!help!students!believe!that!the!grading!
process!is!independent!of!their!behavior!or!an!instructor’s!”whimsical!
judgment.”!
!
Be!clear!that!students!should!do!as!they!please,!but!that!they!are!responsible!
for!the!consequences!of!their!behavior.!!In!a!course!that!requires!extensive!
role@playing!and!simulation,!students!frequently!use!instructors!as!a!target!
for!both!dependence!and!counter@dependence.!!These!projections!help!to!
confound!the!instructor!roles.!!For!example,!on!the!one!hand,!students!fear!
that!if!they!misbehave!in!a!simulation!(e.g.,!act!exploitatively!or!unethically),!
their!grade!will!be!affected.!!So!they!act!inhibited,!or!ask!the!instructor’s!
“permission”!to!behave!in!ways!they!ordinarily!would!not.!!On!the!other!
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hand,!students!also!believe!that!the!instructor!will!stop,!control,!or!regulate!
undesirable!behavior;!hence!they!behave!more!competitively!or!
outrageously!than!they!might!otherwise.!!The!instructor!should!make!it!clear!
that!students!not!only!make!their!own!choices!about!their!behavior,!but!also!
must!live!with!the!consequences!of!that!behavior.!If!they!choose!to!behave!
competitively!or!unethically!and!engender!anger!or!mistrust!among!their!
classmates,!these!are!realistic!consequences!that!cannot!be!avoided.!
!
3.))Regulating)Classroom)Dynamics.!There!are!a!number!of!other!procedural!rules!that!
are!necessary!and!useful!for!instructors!to!stipulate,!such!as!the!following:!
!
•!! All!behavior,!including!behavior!in!simulations!and!role@plays,!is!“real.”!!
Students!sometimes!try!to!argue!(usually!ex!post!facto)!that!role@playing!and!
simulations!are!not!”real”!because!there!are!no!actual!outcomes!and!people!
play!artificial!roles.!!These!arguments!are!often!used!to!avoid!taking!
responsibility!for!their!behavior!or!its!consequences,!or!to!deny!the!impact!of!
that!behavior!on!others.!!Moreover,!they!argue!that!they!certainly!would!
have!behaved!differently!had!this!been!a!”real”!situation.!!Instructors!will!
recognize!this!behavior!as!defensive!and!myopic,!yet!often!feel!frustrated!in!
their!inability!to!persuade!the!student!that!this!is!a!limited!and!perhaps!
distorted!view.!!Instead!of!becoming!entangled!in!such!arguments,!it!is!
usually!easier!to!have!students!accept!the!initial!premise!that!all!behavior!in!
the!course!is!”real,”!that!they!make!choices!about!the!way!they!behave,!that!
behavior!has!consequences!and!they!must!be!willing!to!live!with!them.!!The!
stakes!may!be!different!outside!the!classroom,!but!the!behavior!is!no!less!
real.!
!
•!! It!is!imperative!that!the!confidential!information!provided!in!most!role@
playing!scenarios!will!in!fact!be!treated!as!confidential.!!Instructors!should!
routinely!insist!that!students!not!read!the!opposite!side’s!information,!or!
excuse!themselves!from!the!exercise!if!they!are!aware!of!the!other!side’s!
confidential!information.!
!
•!! Small!groups!negotiating!within!the!context!of!a!larger!course!should!view!
behavior!as!independent!and!autonomous!from!other!small!groups.!!This!is!
an!extension!of!the!previous!procedural!rule!on!confidentiality,!but!applies!to!
discussing!the!role@play!with!other!students!in!the!course!before!they!have!
completed!the!exercise.!!Gaining!confidential!information!from!other!groups!
that!may!have!already!completed!negotiations,!etc.!will!be!viewed!in!the!
same!light!as!reviewing!the!other!side’s!confidential!briefing!documents.!
!
•!!The!behavior!of!individuals!and!groups!within!the!boundaries!of!the!course!
should!be!held!in!strict!confidence.!!Courses!in!negotiation!typically!occur!
within!a!larger!academic!context,!in!which!students!may!know!one!another!
very!well.!!Behavioral!dynamics!in!the!course!may!frequently!become!the!
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subject!of!discussion!and!gossip!outside!the!course,!perhaps!embarrassing!
students!who!are!not!proud!of!their!behavior.!!Students!should!be!
encouraged!to!respect!the!rights!of!others!and!to!refrain!from!out@of@class!
discussions.!
!
4.!Unethical!Conduct.!!Violations!of!confidentiality!are!only!one!form!of!ethical!
violation.!Students!may!”bluff”!about!their!position,!or!tell!an!outright!lie.!!They!may!spy!on!
another’s!planning!session,!or!steal!the!other’s!documents.!!They!may!try!to!bribe!or!
influence!a!referee.!!Instructors!should!treat!these!events!as!important!dynamics!that!need!
review!and!attention.!!Moreover,!while!instructors!frequently!set!aside!one!or!more!classes!
to!discuss!ethics!specifically,!I!believe!that!the!best!discussions!occur!“on!the!spot,”!as!
perceived!ethical!violations!occur!and!are!challenged.!!I!suggest!the!following!strategies!for!
discussing!ethical!issues:!
!
•!! Make!note!of!the!issues!raised!and!bring!them!up!in!the!debriefing!of!an!activity!
(particularly!if!students!do!not!raise!them).!
!
•!! Do!not!take!a!normative!position!as!the!instructor.!Instead,!work!to!elicit!the!
perceptions!and!perspectives!of!the!actor,!those!affected!by!the!action,!and!
observers.!
!
•!! Use!the!discussion!to!develop!an!agreement!on!the!implied!ethical!”rule”!that!may!
have!been!violated!(e.g.,!”Lying!is!bad”).!!Test!out!whether!everyone!agrees!that!
this!is!the!rule,!whether!the!rule!applies!in!this!case,!and!whether!the!rule!has!been!
actually!violated.!!The!odds!are!that!the!class!will!not!be!unanimous!on!this!point.!
!
•!!Use!the!rule!and!its!perceived!violation!to!highlight!how!people!disagree!about!the!
rules!that!govern!competitive!social!behavior.!!Also,!point!out!how!the!distorted!
perceptions!that!accompany!conflict!enhance!the!debate!about!perceived!ethical!
violations!and!their!appropriateness.!
!
5.))Extreme)Emotionalism,)Revenge)and)Violence.!!Students,!and!even!experienced!
instructors!laugh!nervously!when!this!is!mentioned.!!However,!”truth!in!packaging”!
requires!that!I!admit!that!occasional!episodes!of!extreme!emotion,!revenge,!and!violence!do!
occur.!
! !
Students!don’t!believe!that!anyone!would!ever!get!that!upset!over!a!“silly”!simulation;!
many!inexperienced!instructors!don’t!believe!it!either.!!Yet!people!become!very!upset!when!
betrayed,!duped!or!ignored.!!Heated!words!and!accusations!can!lead!to!long@standing!feuds,!
revenge,!and!even!physical!confrontation.!!The!following!steps!are!recommended!to!
prepare!for!this!possibility:!
!
•!! A!”no!violence”!rule!should!be!announced!at!the!beginning!of!the!course.!!Students!
may!laugh!it!off,!but!the!point!should!be!made!clear.!
!
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•!! Instructors!should!instantly!terminate!a!simulation!or!role@play!when!passions!
become!extreme.!!Announce!that!the!exercise!is!over,!separate!the!parties,!allow!
individuals!to!calm!down,!and/or!call!a!break.!!When!passions!cool,!reconvene!that!
group!and!have!people!come!to!grips!with!what!occurred.!!I!strongly!
recommended!that!students!be!encouraged!to!”ventilate”!by!talking!about!how!
they!feel,!but!not!by!hurling!accusations!at!the!other!side!and!resuming!the!fight.!!I!
decidedly!do!not!recommend!that!the!instructor!dismiss!the!class!and!ask!people!
to!“cool!off!and!come!back!next!week.”!!This!only!allows!students!to!continue!the!
dispute!outside!the!classroom,!and!to!protract!the!feud!in!the!broader!academic!
culture!by!spreading!rumors,!building!alliances!and!allowing!the!feud!to!surface!in!
other!courses.!
!
6.))Negotiating)Rules)and)Procedures)With)Students.!!There!are!usually!one!or!more!
students!who!will!attempt!to!use!the!substantive!topics!of!the!course!as!a!rationale!for!
testing!the!instructor.!!If,!as!the!instructor!may!maintain,!many!things!in!the!world!are!
negotiable,!then!why!not!the!course!requirements,!rules!and!procedures?!!These!students!
will!either!explicitly!attempt!to!renegotiate!the!rules!@@!due!dates,!content!of!assignments,!
exemption!from!assignments!@@!or!defy!the!rules!and!then!attempt!to!negotiate!the!
consequences.!!Other!students!will!explicitly!state!that!the!best!way!to!evaluate!students!in!
the!course!is!by!grading!their!negotiating!effectiveness!with!other!students!or!with!the!
instructor.!!Finally,!others!will!attempt!to!renegotiate!grades!and!evaluations.!
!
! Some!instructors!are!comfortable!simply!saying!“no”!to!these!students,!enforcing!
the!preset!rules!and!procedures.!!Others!are!torn!by!the!compelling!persuasiveness!of!the!
arguments,!or!perhaps!their!desire!to!reward!the!innovative!and!enterprising!student!who!
creatively!challenges!the!system.!!Once!again,!there!are!no!hard!and!fast!answers,!but!my!
recommendation!is!to!stick!with!the!explicit!rules.!
!
! The!fairness!and!equity!of!the!grading!system!is!at!stake!in!this!discussion.!!If!the!
instructor!plans!to!evaluate!academic!performance!based!on!examinations!or!papers,!then!
students!believe!this!system!will!be!consistently!applied!to!all.!!If!some!students!can!
successfully!renegotiate!their!academic!obligations!with!an!instructor,!the!instructor’s!
fairness!is!called!into!question.!!An!instructor!cannot!reward!such!entrepreneurial!initiative!
by!one!student!without!conveying!the!impression!that!the!rules!are!not!systematically!and!
uniformly!applied.!!Such!negative!perceptions!are!ultimately!detrimental!to!an!instructor’s!
evaluation!and!adjudged!effectiveness!by!the!class!majority.!!The!instructor!will!lose!
credibility!and!respect!in!the!eyes!of!the!students.!
!
GOOD!LUCK!!
!
!
REFERENCE)
!
Kolb,!D.,!Rubin,!I.M.,!and!McIntyre,!J.M.!Organizational!Psychology.!4th!Ed.!!
Englewood!Cliffs,!N.J.:!Prentice!Hall.!1983.!
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