Chapter 04 – The Meanings and Dimensions of Culture
Key Terms
Achievement culture―A culture in which people are accorded status based on how well they
perform their functions
Ascription culture―A culture in which status is attributed based on who or what a person is
Collectivism―The tendency of people to belong to groups or collectives and to look after
each other in exchange for loyalty
Communitarianism―Refers to people regarding themselves as part of a group
Culture―Acquired knowledge that people use to interpret experience and generate social
behavior. This knowledge forms values, creates attitudes, and influences behavior
Diffuse culture―A culture in which public space and private space are similar in size and
individuals guard their public space carefully, because entry into public space affords entry
into private space as well
Emotional culture―A culture in which emotions are expressed openly and naturally
Femininity―A cultural characteristic in which the dominant values in society are caring for
others and the quality of life
GLOBE―A multicountry study and evaluation of cultural attributes and leadership behaviors
among more than 17,000 managers from 951 organizations in 62 countries
Individualism―The tendency of people to look after themselves and their immediate family
only
Masculinity―A cultural characteristic in which the dominant values in society are success,
money, and things
Neutral culture―A culture in which emotions are held in check
Particularism―The belief that circumstances dictate how ideas and practices should be
applied and that something cannot be done the same everywhere
Power distance―The extent to which less powerful members of institutions and organizations
accept that power is distributed unequally
Specific culture―A culture in which individuals have a large public space they readily share
with others and a small private space they guard closely and share with only close friends and
associates
Uncertainty avoidance―The extent to which people feel threatened by ambiguous situations
and have created beliefs and institutions that try to avoid these
Universalism―The belief that ideas and practices can be applied everywhere in the world
without modification
Values―Basic convictions that people have regarding what is right and wrong, good and bad,
important and unimportant
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Chapter 04 – The Meanings and Dimensions of Culture
Review and Discussion Questions
1. What is meant by the term culture? In what way can measuring attitudes about the
following help to differentiate between cultures: centralized or decentralized
decision making, safety or risk, individual or group rewards, high or low
organizational loyalty, cooperation or competition? Use these attitudes to compare
the United States, Germany, and Japan. Based on your comparisons, what
conclusions can you draw regarding the impact of culture on behavior?
Answer: Culture is acquired knowledge that people use to interpret experience and
generate social behavior. This knowledge forms values, creates attitudes, and
depending on the organization philosophy of management. A more proactive
approach is the use of a decentralized approach in the U.S. Germany has a more
centralized bureaucratic and formal organization control. Management in Japan is
more group-oriented in making decisions. This will be a more decentralized
approach to management.
Safety vs. risk. In some societies, organizational decision makers are risk-averse
and have great difficulty with conditions of uncertainty. In others, risk taking is
encouraged, and decision making under uncertainty is common.
The attitude toward safety vs. risk varies from one firm to another in the U.S. In
Germany safety and risk are important concerns because of labor unions. The
is based on group rewards. Quality circle applications are used to reward groups for
the introduction of new cost-saving techniques.
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High or low organizational loyalty. In some societies, people identify very
strongly with their organization or employer. In other, people identify with their
occupational group, such as engineer or mechanic.
The attitude of organizational loyalty is an important issue facing U.S. firms.
Traditionally it has been individual loyalty; however, management has to earn and
then maintain a high degree of loyalty. Many firms experience a lack of
commitment; therefore, a low degree of individual loyalty to the organization. In
unions and operating employees are extremely competitive in German operations.
In Japan, the work group will attempt to be more cooperative with management to
achieve company objectives. Cooperation and a commitment to the job until the
task is complete are important operating norms in Japan.
2. What is meant by the term value? Are cultural values the same worldwide, or are
there marked differences? Are these values changing over time, or are they fairly
constant? How does your answer relate to the role of values in a culture?
Answer: Values are basic convictions that people have regarding what is right and
wrong, good and bad, important and unimportant. Values are learned from the
culture in which the individual is reared, and they help direct and guide behavior.
Research shows that there are both differences and similarities between the work
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Research on the question of whether values change over time is inconclusive. For
example, one researcher found that personal value systems are relatively stable and
do not change rapidly. On the other hand, there are changes taking place in
managerial values as a result of culture and technology. Japanese managers working
for Japanese firms in the U.S. have indicated that they do not believe that
unconditional tenure in an organization is of major importance, even though
3. What are the four major dimensions of culture studied by Geert Hofstede? Identify
and describe each. What is the cultural profile of the United States? Of Asian
countries? Of Latin American countries? Of Latin European countries? Based on
your comparisons of these four profiles, what conclusions can you draw regarding
cultural challenges facing individuals in one group when they interact with
individuals in one of the other groups? Why do you think Hofstede added the fifth
dimension of time orientation and the sixth dimension related to indulgence versus
restraint?
Answer: The four major dimensions are:
1) Power Distance―The extent to which less powerful members of institutions
and organizations accept that power is distributed unequally.
2) Uncertainty Avoidance― The extent to which people feel threatened by
the dominant values in society are caring for others and quality of life scores
high on femininity.
Cultural Profiles:
Americans and Latin Europeans are both low on power distance and high on
individualism.
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From these comparisons, we can conclude that Americans might find that
interacting with Latin Europeans is less challenging than with Latin Americans or
Asians. Latin Americans and Asians might find more similarities between
in long-term oriented societies. Such a huge difference will affect motivation and
planning among workers. Indulgent societies encourage instant gratification of
natural human needs, while restrained cultures regulate and control behavior based
on social norms. Again, motivation and planning will be different.
4. As people engage in more international travel and become more familiar with other
countries, will cultural differences decline as a roadblock to international
understanding, or will they continue to be a major barrier? Defend your answer.
Answer: There will be a decline in cultural barriers, but it will be a very slow and
gradual decline. Cultural values develop very slowly and are somewhat resistant to
5. What are the characteristics of each of the following pairs of cultural characteristics
derived from Trompenaars’s research: universalism vs. particularism, neutral vs.
affective, specific vs. diffuse, achievement vs. ascription? Compare and contrast
each pair.
Answer: The answer to this question is as follows:
more flexibility is allowed (particularistic)? This can result in conflict if
universalistic and particularistic partners are doing business.
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Neutral vs. emotional― These two cultural dimensions contrast how emotions are
expressed. A neutral culture will tend to hold in feelings, or “maintain composure.”
An emotional culture is characterized by an open, natural expression of feelings. A
are in the public space, you are also in the private space. Therefore, you may not be
invited into another’s office or home in a diffuse culture as quickly. These diffuse
cultural values may give the impression of unfriendliness or introversion.
Achievement vs. ascription―The key here is how status is defined. Achievement
cultures are characterized by status being defined by how well one performs his
functions. In the United States, for example, we tend to respect public figures based
primarily on specific accomplishments. Contrast this to an ascriptive culture, where
6. How did project GLOBE build on and extend Hofstede’s analysis? What major
contributions are associated with project GLOBE?
Answer: The GLOBE project extended and integrated earlier analyses of cultural
attribute and variables, and represents every geographic location in the world. The
7. In what way is time a cultural factor? In what way is the need to control the
environment a cultural factor? Give an example for each.
One way to approach this question would be to contrast what it would be like to do
business in these countries. How are you going to be perceived if you attempt to
adhere to a rigid schedule in a country like Mexico? It could be argued that this is
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has. People who believe that they are masters of their own fate will generally have a
dominant, aggressive attitude. In addition, they could show signs of discomfort
when things appear to be getting out of control. Contrast this with a culture where
people believe events happen in natural waves or shifts. This will convey a more
flexible attitude of compromise and harmony.
Internet Exercise: Renault-Nissan in South Africa
Suggestion for Using the Exercise
1. The alliance between Renault and Nissan is just one example of the cross-border
alliances that permeate the global auto industry. Ask your students to identify other
alliances between auto companies and discuss how differing cultural attitudes could
influence how those alliances operate. How might the culture differences improve
the success of the alliances? What problems might emerge for the alliances as a
result of the cultural differences?
In The International Spotlight: South Africa
Questions & Suggested Answers
1. In what way could the huge cultural diversity in South Africa pose challenges for
MNCs seeking to set up a business there?
Answer: The tremendous cultural diversity that exists in South Africa could create
many challenges for MNCs seeking to do business in the country. Long held
tensions between ethnic groups could create problems for MNCs when hiring
2. How is South African culture different from or similar to U.S. culture?
Answer: Both the U.S. and South Africa are home to multiple ethnic groups
creating a melting pot of sorts. This melting pot helps to create a richer culture, but
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3. In what ways could South Africa benefit from hosting the World Cup in the long
term?
Answer: The 2010 World Cup Soccer tournament put South Africa in the global
spotlight and brought the country much needed economic growth. More than
4. What do you think are the most pressing social issues in South Africa and how is
the country doing resolving them?
Answer: Social problems including poverty, lack of infrastructure in Black African
areas, AIDS, crime, and corruption continue to create challenges for South Africa.
For years, the government failed to address these problems, but more recently,
efforts have been made to find solutions. Certainly the hosting of the World Cup
International Management in Action: Business Customs in South
Africa
Summary
1. Suggestions with regard to business customs in South Africa:
1) Arrange a meeting before discussing business over the phone. Be prepared for
informal small talk before and during the meeting.
6) Patience is very important. Never interrupt.
7) Keep presentations short, and avoid flashy visuals. Follow up and be clear.
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International Management in Action: Common Personal Values
Summary
1. While successful managers come from different cultures, many have similar
personal values. Among the most significant value patterns are: highly pragmatic;
achievement and competence; emphasis on profit, efficiency, and productivity;
emphasis on size and growth; individualistic, high morals, humanistic. On the other
hand, some managers avoid competition and risk; emphasize compliance.
Managers from different countries exhibit a mix of these value patterns.
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