Chapter 13 – Leadership Across Cultures
2) Bass found that universal leadership behavior is far more commonly than previously
thought and that most effective managers were transformational leaders, characterized by
four interrelated factors (the 4 I’s):
a) Idealized influence
b) Inspirational motivation
3) Bass also discovered four other types of leaders.
a) Contingent reward (CR) leader (most effective of the four)
b) Active management-by-exception (MBE-A) leader
4) Other Bass conclusions:
a) Through the use of higher-order factor analysis it is possible to develop a leadership
model that illustrates the effectiveness of all five types of leaders.
b) After taking differences into consideration, Bass contends that universal leadership
behavior is far more common than many people realize.
Qualities for Successful Leaders
1) Another recent research approach that has been used to address the issue of international
leadership is that of examining the characteristics that companies are looking for in their
new executive hires.
Teaching Tip: Although countries vary on many variables (including leadership styles),
there are many organizations that work hard to help businesses from different countries
work together and understand each other. An example is the Friends and Partners
organization, which is a nonprofit organization developed by citizens of the U.S. and
Russia to promote better understanding between the people of the two countries. The
organization’s website is available at {http://www.friends-partners.org/friends/}.
2) Tollgerdt-Andersson study (see Table 13–6):
a) There seem to be great differences between the European countries regarding their
leadership requirements.
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Chapter 13 – Leadership Across Cultures
Culture Clusters and Leader Effectiveness
1) Although the foregoing discussion indicates there is research to support universalism in
leadership behavior, recent findings also show that effective leader behaviors tend to vary
by cultural cluster.
2) Some of the results, grouped by cluster, are presented in Table 13–7.
Leader Behavior, Leader Effectiveness, and Leading Teams
1) Culture is also important in helping explain how leaders ought to act in order to be
effective.
a) In neutral cultures, leaders do not show their emotions. In some cultures people are
taught to exhibit their emotions but not let emotion affect their making rational
decisions, while in other cultures the two are intertwined.
b) The way in which managers speak to their people can influence the outcome.
c) Knowing how to communicate can greatly influence leadership across cultures.
2) One of the keys to successful global leadership is recognizing which style and behavior
works best in a given culture and adapting appropriately. See Table 13–8 for specific tips
on leadership approaches.
Cross-Cultural Leadership: Insights from the GLOBE Study
1) Leadership behaviors can me summarized into six broad categories:
a) Charismatic/Value-Based leaders inspire, motivate, and encourage high performance
outcomes from others based on a foundation of core values.
f) Self-Protective leaders ensure the safety and security of the individual and group
through status-enhancement and face-saving.
2) Cultural values influence which leadership attributes or styles are prevalent, usually those
congruent with or supportive of those values.
3) GLOBE study (Phases 1 and 2) on the leadership attributes found to be effective across
cultures:
a) Trustworthy, just, and honest (having integrity)
b) Having foresight and planning ahead
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4) GLOBE study on the leadership attributes that are undesirable across cultures: irritable,
malevolent, and ruthless
5) GLOBE study conclusions:
a) Collectivism I values (Sweden and other Nordic and Scandinavian countries) view
Participative and Self-Protective leadership behaviors favorably while viewing
Autonomous leadership behaviors negatively.
b) In-Group Collectivism II values (Philippines and other East Asian countries) were
f) Societal Uncertainty Avoidance values (Zambia, the Philippines, and Ireland) were
positively associated with Humane-Oriented leader attributes.
g) Societal Power Distance values (Morocco, Nigeria, and Argentina) were positively
correlated with Self-Protective and Humane-Oriented leader attributes.
6) Phase 3 of the GLOBE project explored the relationship between the leadership behavior
of CEOs and the effectiveness of their companies.
a) CEOs tend to lead in a way that is consistent with the culturally-desired leadership
leadership traits were more likely to also exhibit the desired leadership characteristics
of their society.
7) Cultural values influence leadership preferences.
a) However, cultural values and leadership preferences are not always in congruence.
b) The combination of gender, gender egalitarianism and industry type is an important
determinant of leaders’ role expectations.
Positive Organizational Scholarship and Leadership
1) Positive organizational scholarship (POS) is a method that focuses on positive outcomes,
processes, and attributes of organizations and their members.
2) POS recognizes the positive potential that people have within. Constructive behavior will
yield desired outcomes.
Authentic Leadership
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1) What makes a leader authentic?
a) Leaders tend to be dynamic, forward-thinking, and pioneers in setting new standards.
b) An interpretation by Shamir and Eilam suffused that authentic leaders have four
distinct characteristics:
i) Authentic leaders do not fake their actions.
ii) Authentic leaders are driven from internal forces, not external rewards.
iv) They should periodically check their actions and make sure they are congruous
with ultimate goals, and that they do not stray from internal standards or expected
outcomes.
v) They should lead by example; their processes and behaviors should be virtuous
and reflect the positive moral values inherent in the leader.
2) Followers who have authentic leaders:
a) Are molded into leaders, are inspired
b) Trust their leaders, actively engage in processes, and experience a sense of overall
workplace well-being.
3) An optimal situation would be one in which the organization values open communication
and sharing, where leaders can both promote the company values and still have room to
improve through learning and continued self-development.
4) How authentic leaders different from traditional leaders: similar but with one important
difference:
a) Authentic leadership focuses mainly on the internal aspects of the leader, such as
morals, values, motivators, and so forth.
b) The key to transformational leadership is how the leader motivates others, which is a
secondary concern with authentic leadership.
5) Comparative leadership styles are provided in Table 13–9 in the text.
Ethical, Responsible, and Servant Leadership
1) Globalization and MNCs have come under fire from a number of areas.
a) The activities of companies—such as Nike, Levi’s, and United Fruit—whose sourcing
practices in developing countries have been alleged to exploit low-wage workers, take
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2) Public opinion survey conducted for the World Economic Forum by Gallup and
Environics:
a) Leaders have suffered declining public trust in recent years and enjoy less trust than
the institutions they lead.
trusted leaders.
d) Next most trusted were leaders of Western Europe.
3) Ethically responsible global leadership has been linked to transformational leadership
characteristics.
a) Authentic charismatic leadership is guided by principles of altruism, justice and
humanistic notions of the greater good.
4) There are benefits of responsible global leadership for companies’ reputations and bottom
lines.
5) Servant leaders:
a) Achieve results for their organizations by giving priority attention to the needs of their
colleagues and those they serve
6) Studies on servant leadership:
a) Robert Greenleaf proposed servant leadership as an underlying philosophy of
leadership, demonstrated through specific characteristics and practices.
b) Larry Spears (a Greenleaf disciple) identifies 10 characteristics of servant leaders in
unleashing the energy and intelligence of others, and foresight.
7) Servant leadership emphasizes collaboration, trust, empathy, and the ethical use of power.
a) The individual is a servant first, making the conscious decision to lead in order to
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Chapter 13 – Leadership Across Cultures
Entrepreneurial Leadership and Mindset
1) A critical factor in the long-term success of a new venture—whether domestic or
international—is the personal leadership ability of the entrepreneurial CEO.
2) In comparison to nonentrepreneurs, entrepreneurs are:
a) More creative and innovative
b) Tend to break the rules and do not need structure, support, or an organization to guide
their thinking
ways
e) Opportunity seekers and are comfortable with failure, rebounding quickly
3) Entrepreneurial leaders operating internationally must also possess the cultural sensitivity,
international vision, and global mindset to effectively lead their venture as it confronts the
challenges of doing business in other countries.
The World of International Management―Revisited
Questions & Suggested Answers
1. Do the leadership programs developed by Roche emphasize development of
managerial characteristics, leadership characteristics, or a combination of the two?
Answer: Roche offers two distinct leadership programs. One focuses on leadership
impact and provides managers with training in people management skills,
emphasizes leadership characteristics.
2. How do Roche’s programs prepare prospective leaders to manage in differing
cultural contexts?
Answer: Roche tailors its leadership development to the specific needs of
individuals. To that end, a manager can choose to focus on the skills necessary to
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Chapter 13 – Leadership Across Cultures
3. How might deeper understanding of the GLOBE dimensions and the different
leadership behaviors across countries help Roche in developing future leaders?
Answer: An individual’s culture tends to influence his or her leadership style.
However, the approach that works in one culture may not be successful in another.
It is important for managers to understand the culture they are dealing with, and
Key Terms
Authoritarian leadership―The use of work-centered behavior designed to ensure task
accomplishment
Charismatic leaders―Leaders who inspire and motivate employees through their charismatic
traits and abilities
Leadership―The process of influencing people to direct their efforts toward the achievement
of some particular goal or goals
Participative leadership―The use of both work- or task-centered and people-centered
approaches to leading subordinates
Paternalistic leadership―The use of work-centered behavior coupled with a protective
employee-centered concern
Positive organizational scholarship (POS)―A method that focuses on positive outcomes,
processes, and attributes of organizations and their members
Theory X manager―A manager who believes that people are basically lazy and that coercion
and threats of punishment often are necessary to get them to work
Theory Y manager―A manager who believes that under the right conditions people not only
will work hard but will seek increased responsibility and challenge
Theory Z manager―A manager who believes that workers seek opportunities to participate in
management and are motivated by teamwork and responsibility sharing
Transactional leaders―Individuals who exchange rewards for effort and performance and
work on a “something for something” basis
Transformational leaders―Leaders who are visionary agents with a sense of mission and who
are capable of motivating their followers to accept new goals and new ways of doing things
Variety amplification―The creation of uncertainty and the analysis of many alternatives
regarding future action
Variety reduction―The limiting of uncertainty and the focusing of action on a limited number
of alternatives
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Chapter 13 – Leadership Across Cultures
Review and Discussion Questions
1. What cultures would be the most likely to perceive differences between managerial
and leadership duties? What cultures would view them as the same? Use evidence
to support you answer.
Answer: While the terms manager and leader have often been used interchangeably
in the business environment, many believe that there exists distinctions in
characteristics and behaviors between the two, adding ambiguity and confusion to
an already convoluted situation. It has been postulated that managers provide
leadership and leaders perform management functions. U.S. managers believe that
2. Using the results of the classic Haire and associates study as a basis for your
answer, compare and contrast managers’ attitudes toward leadership practices in
Nordic-European and Latin-European countries. (The countries in these clusters are
identified in Table 13–3.)
Answer: Haire, Ghiselli, and Porter investigated some 3,641 managers from 14
countries. The specific attitudes studied were capacity for leadership and initiative,
sharing information and objectives, participation, and internal control.
Nordic-European managers seem to support participative leadership practices. This
support may be somewhat stronger for the Latin-European managers.
It seems that Nordic and Latin-European managers are more democratic in their
response to internal control. They are not relying so much on external rewards but
more on internally generated control.
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