Chapter 13 – Leadership Across Cultures
Chapter 13: Leadership Across Cultures
Learning Objectives and Chapter Summary
1. DESCRIBE the basic philosophic foundation and styles of managerial leadership.
Leadership is a complex and controversial process that can be defined simply as
influencing people to direct their efforts toward the achievement of some particular
goal or goals. While some claim that managers and leaders conduct two separate
job functions, the lack of a universal definition of leadership allows both terms to
be used interchangeably, especially as the world moves toward a manager-leader
model. Two areas warrant attention as a foundation for the study of leadership in an
international setting: philosophical assumptions about people in general and
terms of the managerial grid in Figure 13–2 (1,1 through 9,9).
2. EXAMINE the attitudes of European managers toward leadership practices.
The attitudes of European managers toward dimensions of leadership practice, such
as the capacity for leadership and initiative, sharing information and objectives,
participation, and internal control, were examined in a classic study by Haire,
Ghiselli, and Porter. They found that Europeans, as a composite, had a relatively
3. COMPARE and CONTRAST leadership styles in Japan with those in the United
States.
The Japanese managers in the Haire study had a much greater belief in the capacity
of subordinates for leadership and initiative than managers in most other countries.
The Japanese managers also expressed a more favorable attitude toward a
participative leadership style. In terms of sharing information and objectives and
using internal control the Japanese responded above average but were not
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4. REVIEW leadership approaches in China, the Middle East, and developing
countries.
Leadership research in China shows that the new generation of managers tends to
have a leadership style that is different from the styles of both the current
generation and the older generation. In particular, new generation managers assign
greater importance to individualism as measured by such things as self-sufficiency
and personal accomplishments. They also assign less importance to collectivism as
Persian Gulf region operate in a Western-oriented participative style. Such findings
indicate that there may be more similarities in leadership styles between Western
and Middle Eastern parts of the world than has previously been assumed.
Leadership research also has been conducted among managers in India and Latin
American countries. These studies show that that Indian managers have a tendency
toward participative leadership styles while Latin America wavers between
participative and authoritarian styles. Although there always will be important
differences in styles of leadership between various parts of the world, participative
leadership styles may become more prevalent as countries develop and become
more economically advanced.
5. EXAMINE recent research and findings regarding leadership across cultures.
In recent years there have been research efforts to explore new areas in international
leadership. In particular, Bass has found that there is a great deal of similarity from
culture to culture and transformational leaders, regardless of culture, tend to be the
most effective. In addition, the GLOBE study has confirmed earlier research that
specific cultural values and practices are associated with particular leadership
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6. DISCUSS the relationship of culture clusters and leader behavior on effective
leadership practices, including increasing calls for more responsible global
leadership.
Cultural clusters will impact leadership behavior in an international business.
These cultural clusters must be analyzed to understand customs and practices of the
host foreign country. These clusters impact the organization structure and the
leadership that must be adapted in the various cross-cultures of that foreign nation.
The World of International Management: Global Leadership
Development: An Emerging Need
1. Summary:
This vignette begins with an overview of Amway which faced a shortage of
potential managers that affected the company’s ability to enter new markets.
Leadership development programs had been put on hold during the economic
downturn, an action that turned out to be shortsighted.
The vignette then explores the leadership programs at Roche, a healthcare company
headquartered in Switzerland. Roche believe that strong leadership is essential to
its success. Accordingly, the company places a high priority on providing
employees with opportunities to develop their leadership skills. The article
references two leadership training programs that can be tailored to the specific
needs of individual managers. In addition, Roche has a global leadership
development program designed to provide training to managers who eventually will
be posted to foreign countries. This program includes the opportunity to work in
foreign subsidiaries, experience in different areas of the business, mentoring, and
accelerated training targeted at developing leadership skills.
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Chapter 13 – Leadership Across Cultures
2. Suggested Class Discussion:
1. Discuss the importance of investing in leadership development. How do such
investments affect the overall success of the firm?
2. How do leadership programs that are tailored to the specific needs of individual
managers better prepare managers to lead in cross-cultural situations? What
types of leadership practices and styles are more universally acceptable? Which
are more culturally bound?
3. Related Internet Sites:
BusinessWeek: {http://www.businessweek.com}.
Amway: {http://www.amway.com}.
Roche: {http://www.roche.com/index.htm}.
Chapter Outline with Lecture Notes and Teaching Tips
Foundation for Leadership
1) Leadership is the process of influencing people to direct their efforts toward the
achievement of some particular goal or goals.
The Manager–Leader Paradigm
1) While the terms manager and leader have often been used interchangeably in the business
environment, many believe that there exist clear distinctions in characteristics and
behaviors between the two, adding ambiguity and confusion to an already convoluted
situation.
2) Management
a) Managerial positions often consist of sheer responsibility.
b) The attributes necessary to make a successful manager can be learned through
academic study or observation and training.
c) Essentially, management is something that one does, and the journey consists of
striving to always do things right.
3) Leadership
a) Leadership must be earned through respect.
b) Leaders guide and motivate team members and are extremely visible.
c) Leadership is about the drive to ultimately do the right thing.
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4) The manager–leader
a) It is extremely difficult, if not impossible, to find someone who fits the inclusive
current organizational trends.
d) The leadership role is ultimately determined by team member perspectives.
5) Table 13–1 provides a comparison of perceived differences between leadership and
management.
a) Cultural perspectives are often responsible for how the roles of managers and leaders
are seen to overlap.
b) international managers will often be called upon to assume the role of manager–leader,
or leader-manager.
6) Two comparative areas provide a foundation for understanding leadership in the
international arena:
a) the philosophical grounding of how leaders view their subordinates
b) leadership approaches as reflected by autocratic-participative behaviors of leaders
Philosophical Background: Theories X, Y, and Z
1) The behavior of leaders is linked to their beliefs regarding how to direct their subordinates
most effectively.
a) A Theory X manager assumes that”
i) People are basically lazy and will avoid work.
ii) Workers lack ambition, avoid responsibility, like to be directed.
iii) Job security is primary for employees.
iv) Coercion, control, and threats of punishment are often necessary.
b) A Theory Y manager believes that:
i) Physical and mental effort at work is natural.
the population.
vi) The intellectual potential of the average human being is only partially tapped.
c) A Theory Z manager assumes that:
i) People are motivated by a strong sense of commitment to be part of a greater
whole.
ii) Workers seek responsibility and opportunities to advance.
iii) Employees who learn different aspects of the business will be in a better position
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2) Theory X has generally fallen out of fashion. Theories Y and Z are somewhat
complementary in that each assumes some degree of intrinsic motivation on the part of
employees.
Leadership Behaviors and Styles
1) Leaders behaviors can be categorized into three common styles:
a) Authoritarian leadership is the use of work-centered behavior designed to ensure task
accomplishment.
i) It involves the use of one-way communication from manager to subordinate.
ii) The focus of attention usually is on work progress, work procedures, and
tend to exhibit loyalty and compliance.
iii) ,Paternalistic leadership has been shown to have a positive impact on employees’
attitudes in collectivistic cultures.
c) Participative leadership is the use of both a work and task-centered approach to
leading subordinates.
i) Leaders motivate employees through consulting with employees, encouraging joint
decisions, or delegating responsibilities.
ii) Employees tend to be more creative and innovative when driven by leaders
exhibiting this behavior.
iii) It is very popular in many technologically advanced countries.
2) Figure 13–2: the managerial grid. Perspectives on and preferences toward where leaders
perform on the grid can be influenced by culture.
The Managerial Grid Performance: A Japanese Perspective
1) The managerial grid is a useful visual to chart how leadership behaviors compare with one
another.
2) One can infer from the results that if an individual is high-achieving, then he or she may
be driven by intrinsic factors. This translates into being the most motivated when a
3) Low-achieving groups seemed to be driven by extrinsic factors, such as supervisor
behavior toward subordinates. The success of the authoritarian style indicates that this
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Chapter 13 – Leadership Across Cultures
Leadership in the International Context
1) Research shows both similarities and differences in how leaders in other countries direct
or influence their subordinates as compared to managers in the United States.
Attitudes of European Managers toward Leadership Practices
1) As a general statement, most evidence indicates that European managers tend to use a
participative approach.
a) Two reasons this is true in Britain:
i) The political background of the country favors such an approach.
ii) because most top British managers are not highly involved in the day-to-day
iii) Participation
iv) Internal control
2) Overall Results of Research on Attitudes of European Managers
a) Studies have shown that Anglo leaders tend to have more faith in the capacity of their
people for leadership and initiative than do the other clusters (shown in Table 13–3).
b) Results indicate that none of the leaders from various parts of the world, on average,
quite different in various parts of the world.
3) The Role of Level, Size, and Age on European Managers’ Attitudes toward
Leadership: Haire’s research provided additional details with each cluster of European
countries.
a) In some countries, higher-level managers tended to express more democratic values
than lower-level managers; however in other countries the opposite was true.
a) There was more support among managers in small firms than in large ones regarding
the belief that individuals have a capacity for leadership and initiative; however,
managers differed little.
Japanese Leadership Approaches
1) Japan is well known for its paternalistic approach to leadership.
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Chapter 13 – Leadership Across Cultures
a) The comprehensive Haire, Ghiselli, and Porter study found that Japanese managers
have much greater belief in the capacity of subordinates for leadership and initiative
than do managers in most other countries.
b) The Japanese also expressed attitudes toward the use of participation to a greater
degree than others did.
2) The leadership process used by Japanese managers places a strong emphasis on
ambiguous goals. As a result, subordinates over prepare. Benefits:
a) Leader is able to maintain stronger control; followers prepare themselves for every
eventuality.
b) By placing the subordinates in a position where they must examine a great deal of
information, the manager ensures that the personnel are well prepared to deal with the
situation and all its ramifications.
c) Approach helps the leader maintain order and provide guidance, even when the leader
is not as knowledgeable as the followers.
3) Some researchers believe that Japan’s paternalistic approach may have impeded and
constrained Toyota’s ability to respond quickly to its 2010 quality crisis.
Differences between Japanese and U.S. Leadership Styles
1) Japanese leadership styles differ from those in the United States in a number of ways.
2) Japanese leadership is heavily group-oriented, paternalistic, and concerned with the
employee’s work and personal life. Table 13–4 in the text provides a comparison of seven
key characteristics between Japanese leaders and U.S. leaders.
a) Japanese leadership approach is heavily group-oriented, paternalistic, and concerned
e) Japanese tend to be more ethnocentric than their U.S. counterparts.
Teaching Tip: Because of the differences in the leadership styles between Japanese and
U.S. managers, it is important that American managers fully understand what to expect
before trying to do business in Japan. There are many websites that provide practical
advice for U.S. businesses doing business in Japan. One site that assists with translations
and copywriters is available at {http://www.csjapan.com/}.
3) Despite many differences, managerial practices indicate that there may be more
similarities than once believed. A common trend is the movement toward team orientation
and away from individualism.
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Chapter 13 – Leadership Across Cultures
Leadership in China
1) A new generation of Chinese leaders is emerging. This new generation is different from
those of the past in terms of work values, and more closely resembles Western leadership
styles, particularly in its individualism.
2) In their investigation, researchers studying the “New Generation” of leaders focused on
the importance that the respondents assigned to three areas.
a) The areas:
i) Individualism: measured by the importance assigned to self-sufficiency and
personal accomplishments
ii) Collectivism: measured by the person’s willingness to subordinate personal goals
ii) New generation leaders scored significantly lower than the other two groups on
collectivism and Confucianism.
3) These research findings show that leadership is culturally influenced, but may change
as the economy changes.
Leadership in the Middle East
1) Table 13-3 shows some differences between Middle Eastern and Western management.
2) Recent research provides some evidence that there may be much greater similarity
between Middle Eastern leadership styles and those of Western countries than previously
reported.
a) Western management practices are very evident in the Arabian Gulf region because of
management, as well as among highly educated managers of all ages.
Leadership Approaches in India
1) India is developing at a rapid rate as MNCs increase investment. India’s workforce is quite
knowledgeable in the high-tech industry, and society as a whole is moving toward higher
education.
2) Results of studies:
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Chapter 13 – Leadership Across Cultures
a) Findings may indicate that it is important in India to focus on the individual, but in
order to be efficient and produce results, managers need to maintain awareness of the
developing countries than has been reported previously.
Leadership Approaches in Latin America
1) Research pertaining to leadership styles in Latin America has indicated that as
globalization increases, so does the transitional nature of managers within these regions.
a) In Mexico, leaders tended to have a combination of authoritarian and participative
2) Many of the more enlightened participative leadership styles used in the United States and
other economically advanced countries, such as Japan, also may have value in managing
international operations even in developing countries as well as in the emerging Eastern
European countries.
Recent Findings and Insights about Leadership
1) Do effective leaders, regardless of their culture or job, act similarly? Do managers need
certain behaviors, attitudes, and values to be successful?
2) Thus far the findings have been mixed. Some investigators have found that there is a trend
toward universalism for leadership; others have concluded that culture continues to be a
determining factor.
Transformational, Transactional, and Charismatic Leadership
1) Transformational leaders are visionary agents with a sense of mission and who are
capable of motivating their followers to accept new goals and new ways of doing things.
a) Charismatic leaders inspire and motivate employees through their charismatic traits
and abilities.
b) Transactional leaders are individuals who exchange rewards for effort and
performance and work on a “something for something” basis.
Teaching Tip: A site that contains good information on transformational leadership is
available at:
{http://changingminds.org/disciplines/leadership/styles/transformational_leadership.htm}.
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