Chapter 12 – Motivation Across Cultures
a) U.S.: Employees perform extremely well when they are assigned specific and
d) Asian and Latin work groups: The theory may have limited value for MNC managers
where collectivism is very high.
Expectancy Theory
1) Expectancy theory postulates that motivation is influenced by a person’s belief that
a) Effort will lead to performance.
b) Performance will lead to specific outcomes.
c) These outcomes are valued by the individual.
2) In addition, the theory predicts that high performance followed by high rewards will lead
to high satisfaction.
3) On the other hand, it is important to remember that expectancy theory is based on
employees having considerable control over their environment, a condition that does not
exist in many cultures.
4) In short, the theory seems culture-bound, and international managers must be aware of this
limitation in their efforts to apply this theory to motivate human resources.
Motivation Applied: Job Design, Work Centrality, and Rewards
1) Applied concepts including job design, work centrality, and rewards can provide insight
into how to motivate human resources.
Job Design
1) Job design refers to a job’s content, the methods that are used on the job, and the way the
job relates to others in the organization.
2) Quality of Work Life: The Impact of Culture:
a) Quality of work life (QWL) is not the same throughout the world.
i) Assembly line employees in Japan will work at a rapid pace for hours and have
very little control over their work activities.
ii) In Sweden, assembly line employees work at a more relaxed pace and have a great
deal of control over their work activities.
b) What accounts for these differences?―the culture of the country
i) Japan: strong uncertainty avoidance―individualism is low; strong emphasis on
security; individual risk taking is discouraged.
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ii) Sweden: uncertainty avoidance is low―job descriptions, policy manuals, and
similar work-related materials are more open-ended or general; encouraged to
make decisions and to take risks.
iii) United States: profile is between that of Sweden and Japan
c) The challenge for MNCs is to adjust job design to meet the needs of the host country’s
culture.
Sociotechnical Job Designs
1) Sociotechnical designs are job designs that blend the personnel and the technology.
a) The objective of these designs is to integrate new technology into the workplace so
that workers accept and use these developments to increase overall productivity.
b) Effective sociotechnical design can overcome problems caused by employee
resistance to new technology that requires people to learn new methods and work
faster.
2) Without sacrificing efficiency, some firms have introduced sociotechnical designs for
better blending of their personnel and technology.
3) Functional job descriptions now are being phased out in many MNCs and replaced by
more of a process approach. The result is a more horizontal network that relies on
communication and teamwork.
Work Centrality
1) Work centrality refers to the importance of work in an individual’s life relative to other
areas of interest.
2) Value of Work: Although work is an important part of the lifestyles of most people, this
emphasis can be attributed to a variety of conditions.
a) One reason that Americans and Japanese work such long hours is that the cost of
—influence the degree and type of work centrality within a country.
d) Another important area of consideration is the importance of work as a part of overall
lifestyle.
e) Karoshi refers is the Japanese term for overwork or job burnout.
3) Job Satisfaction: In addition to the implications that value of work has for motivating
human resources across cultures, another interesting contrast is job satisfaction.
a) One current study has revealed that Japanese office workers may be less satisfied with
their jobs as compared to their U.S., Canadian, and EU counterparts.
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Chapter 12 – Motivation Across Cultures
b) Research also reveals that some of the conditions that help create organizational
commitment among U.S. workers also have value in other cultures.
c) Also related to motivation are job attitudes toward quality of work life.
d) Work is important in every society.
Reward Systems
1) Managers everywhere use rewards to motivate their personnel.
a) Sometimes these are financial in nature such as salary raises, bonuses, and stock
options.
b) At other times they are non-financial such as feedback and recognition.
Incentives and Culture
1) Use of financial incentives to motivate employees is very common, especially in countries
with high individualism.
a) Reward systems designed to stress equity are not universally accepted.
b) In cultures that stress group membership/effort, employees will oppose the use of
individual incentive plans.
2) While financial rewards are important motivators, in many countries workers are highly
motivated by other things as well.
a) The types of incentives that are deemed important appear to be culturally influenced.
b) Sometimes, however, reward systems can be transferred and used successfully.
c) Overall, cultures do greatly influence the effectiveness of various rewards.
The World of International Management―Revisited
Questions & Suggested Answers
1. What are some of the things that successful MNCs do to effectively motivating
European employees?
Answer: There are a number of responses that can be given to this question. These
include lifestyle, leisure time so that workers can enjoy themselves away from the
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2. What kinds of incentives do scientific and technical employees respond to that
might not be as meaningful to other categories of employees?
Answer: Scientific and technical employees tend to value research resources,
innovation funds, opportunities for creativity, low levels of bureaucracy, autonomy,
3. What advantages might employees see in working for a truly global company (as
opposed to a North American MNC)?
Answer: For many employees, working for a true global company presents
opportunities that a local company or a North American MNC may not be able to
offer. For example, a global company would strategically locate its vital operations,
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Key Terms
Achievement motivation theory―A theory which holds that individuals can have a need to
get ahead, to attain success, and to reach objectives
Content theories of motivation―Theories that explain work motivation in terms of what
arouses, energizes, or initiates employee behavior
Equity theory―A process theory that focuses on how motivation is affected by people’s
perception of how fairly they are being treated
Esteem needs―Needs for power and status
Expectancy theory―A process theory that postulates that motivation is influenced by a
person’s belief that (a) effort will lead to performance, (b) performance will lead to specific
outcomes, and (c) the outcomes will be of value to the individual
Extrinsic―A determinant of motivation by which the external environment and result of the
activity in the form of competition and compensation or incentive plans are of great
importance
Goal-setting theory―A process theory that focuses on how individuals go about setting goals
and responding to them and the overall impact of this process on motivation
Hygiene factors―In the two-factor motivation theory, job-context variables such as salary,
interpersonal relations, technical supervision, working conditions, and company policies and
administration
Intrinsic―A determinant of motivation by which an individual experiences fulfillment
through carrying out an activity itself and helping others
Job-content factors―In work motivation, those factors internally controlled, such as
responsibility, achievement, and the work itself
Job-context factors―In work motivation, those factors controlled by the organization, such as
conditions, hours, earnings, security, benefits, and promotions
Job design―A job’s content, the methods that are used on the job, and the way the job relates
to other jobs in the organization
Karoshi―A Japanese term that means “overwork” or “job burnout”
Motivation―A psychological process through which unsatisfied wants or needs lead to drives
that are aimed at goals or incentives
Motivators―In the two-factor motivation theory, job-content factors such as achievement,
recognition, responsibility, advancement, and the work itself
Physiological needs―Basic physical needs for water, food, clothing, and shelter
Process theories of motivation―Theories that explain work motivation by how employee
behavior is initiated, redirected, and halted
Safety needs―Desires for security, stability, and the absence of pain
Self-actualization needs―Desires to reach one’s full potential, to become every-thing one is
capable of becoming as a human being
Social needs―Desires to interact and affiliate with others and to feel wanted by others
Sociotechnical designs―Job designs that blend personnel and technology
Two-factor theory of motivation―A theory that identifies two sets of factors that influence
job satisfaction: hygiene factors and motivators
Work centrality―The importance of work in an individual’s life relative to other areas of
interest
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Chapter 12 – Motivation Across Cultures
Review and Discussion Questions
1. Do people throughout the world have needs similar to those described in Maslow’s
need hierarchy? What does your answer reveal about using universal
assumptions regarding motivation?
Answer: Research generally shows that people throughout the world do have needs
similar to those described in Maslow’s need hierarchy. Research suggests that
business firms, no matter in what country, will have to be concerned with the
2. Is Herzberg’s two-factor theory universally applicable to human resource
management, or is its value limited to Anglo countries?
Answer: It is important to note that Herzberg’s theory has been criticized as being a
theory of job satisfaction, and much of the international research on the two-factor
3. What are the dominant characteristics of high achievers? Using Figure 12–7 as your
point of reference, determine which countries likely will have the greatest
percentage of high achievers. Why is this so? Of what value is your answer to the
study of international management?
Answer: The dominant characteristics of high achievers include: (1) they like
situations in which they take personal responsibility for finding solutions to
to caring for others and quality of work life. Some examples of these countries are
the United States, Canada, Ireland, New Zealand, Singapore, Hong Kong, India,
and the Philippines.
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