978-0077733735 Chapter 6 Lecture Notes

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Chapter 06 – Tort Law and Cybertorts

Chapter 6

Tort Law and Cybertorts

I. Key Terms

Abuse of process (p. 142) Fraud (p. 139)

Actual cause (p. 144) Fraudulent misrepresentation (p. 139)

Actual malice (p. 138) Injunction (p. 152)

Actual malice test (p. 138) Intentional or reckless infliction of

Assault (p. 136) emotional distress (p. 141)

Assumption of the risk (p. 147) Invasion of privacy (p. 120)

Battery (p. 136) Juriscience (p. 134)

Bring-your-own-device Last clear chance (p. 147)

(BYOD) (p. 151) Legal cause (p. 145)

Cause in fact (p. 144) Libel (p. 138)

Company-owned, Malicious prosecution (p. 141)

personally enabled devices (p. 151) Merchant protection statute (p. 137)

Comparative negligence (p. 147) Misuse of legal procedure (p. 141)

Contributory negligence (p. 147) Negligence (p. 142)

Cyber-bulletin board (p. 149) Noneconomic compensatory

Cyber-defamation (p. 149) damages (p. 152)

Cyber-disparagement (p. 150) Paradigm (p. 155)

Cyber-invasion of privacy (p. 150) Private information (p. 151)

Cybertort (p. 149) Proximate cause (p. 145)

Damages (p. 152) Punitive damages (p. 152)

Data mining (p. 151) Respondeat superior (p. 134)

Defamation (p. 138) Shopkeeper’s privilege (p. 137)

Defective condition (p. 148) Slander (p. 138)

Disparagement (p. 139) Statutes of repose (p. 155)

Duty (p. 134) Strict liability (p. 148)

Economic compensatory Temporary public figures (p. 138)

damages (p. 152) Tort (p. 138)

Exemplary damages (p. 152) Tortfeasor (p. 138)

False imprisonment (p. 137) Wrongful civil proceedings (p. 141)

Foreseeability test (p 145) Wrongful death statutes (p 154)

II. Learning Objectives

1. Differentiate between the objectives of tort law and those of criminal law.

2. Outline the nature of respondeat superior.

3. Discuss the element of duty.

4. Identify the principle intentional torts and outline the elements of each.

5. Explain the four elements of negligence.

6. Contrast contributory negligence, comparative negligence, and assumption of the

risk.

7. Judge when the doctrine of strict liability applies.

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Chapter 06 – Tort Law and Cybertorts

8. Discuss the emerging trends in cybertort law.

9. Outline the various remedies available in tort law.

10. Point out some developments in tort reform.

III. Major Concepts

6-1 Tort Law Defined

A tort is a private wrong that injures another person’s physical well-being, emotional

health, property, or reputation. A person who commits a tort is called a tortfeasor. The

other party is alternatively referred to as the injured party, the innocent party, or the

victim. The primary purpose of tort law is to compensate the innocent party by making up

for any loss suffered by that victim. The doctrine of respondeat superior may impose

legal liability on employers and make them pay for the torts committed by their

employees within the scope of the employer’s business.

6-2 Intentional Torts

The principal intentional torts include assault, battery, false imprisonment, defamation,

disparagement, fraudulent misrepresentation, invasion of privacy, intentional infliction of

emotional distress, and malicious prosecution.

6-3 Negligence

Negligence is the failure to exercise the degree of care that a reasonable person would

have exercised in the same circumstances. Negligence includes four elements: duty of

care, breach of duty through a failure to exercise the appropriate standard of care,

proximate cause, and actual harm. Three defenses to negligence are contributory

negligence, comparative negligence, and assumption of risk.

6-4 Strict Liability

Under the doctrine of strict liability, when people engage in ultrahazardous activities,

they will be liable for any harm that occurs because of that activity, regardless of intent

and regardless of care.

6-5 Cybertorts

Cyberrtorts involve computer data that has been invaded, distorted, falsified, misused,

destroyed, or exploited financially by an electronic device. Therefore, cybertorts rarely

involve any harm to a party’s physical well-being. Instead, the victim’s reputation has

been hurt because a false statement has been placed on the Internet, the victim’s

emotional state has been disturbed, because his or her privacy has been invaded by a

posting on Facebook, or the victim has suffered monetary harm because of identity theft.

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6-6 Remedies for Torts

Tort remedies include monetary damages and injunctions.

6-7 Developments in Tort Law

Survival statutes allow a lawsuit to be brought even if both the plaintiff and the defendant

are deceased. Wrongful death statutes preserve the rights of third parties affected by the

death of the deceased to bring a lawsuit. Statutes of repose establish a limit in years

beyond which an injured party could not bring a lawsuit for an injury caused by a product

or by medical malpractice. Another reform that has been suggested in some states is the

application of comparative negligence as an affirmative defense in some product liability

cases.

IV. Outline

I. Tort Law Defined (6-1)

A. Tort Law Versus Criminal Law

1. Purposes of tort law are to compensate for an injured party’s loss and to protect

potential victims by deterring future tortious behavior.

2. Criminal law involves a public wrong.

3. A single act may be both a tort and a crime.

4. Double jeopardy does not protect a defendant from being sued under tort law after

that defendant has been tried in a criminal court for the same action.

B. Respondeat Superior

1. Employers can be held liable for torts of employees committed within the scope of

the employer’s business.

2. Employers and employees must have some working knowledge of tort law.

C. The Element of Duty

1. Duty is the first element of legal liability.

2. A duty is an obligation placed on individuals because of the law.

3. The second element of legal liability is violation of a duty.

D. Causation and Juriscience

1. There are two kinds of causation, actual cause and proximate cause.

2. The stage where science and law intersect is called juriscience.

3. Judges must determine the validity of scientific evidence.

4. Following the case of Daubert v. Merrell Dow, the federal rule on expert testimony

was amended to help judges make determinations in regard to the admissibility of

proffered scientific evidence. The rule states that an expert may testify on a scientific

matter if the three criteria below are satisfied.

a. Testimony is based upon sufficient facts or data.

b. The testimony is the product of reliable scientific principles and methods.

c. The witness has applied the principles and methods reliably to the facts of the

case.

5. Issues in regard to admissibility of expert scientific testimony remain, and some states

have tried to be more specific on requirements for admissibility.

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II. Intentional Torts (6-2)

A. Assault and Battery

1. Assault is the creation of fear or apprehension of immediate bodily harm by a

tortfeasor who has apparent ability to inflict harm.

2. Battery is an offensive or harmful, unprivileged touching.

B. False Imprisonment

1. False imprisonment is the restriction of a person’s freedom of movement.

2. In cases of shoplifting most states allow storekeepers with reasonable grounds to

detain suspected shoplifters in a reasonable manner for a reasonable length of time.

3. Protection for shopkeepers is referred to as the shopkeeper’s privilege; and when it is

created by statute, that statute is commonly called the merchant protection statute.

C. Defamation and Disparagement

1. Defamation

a. Any false statement communicated to others that harms a person’s good name or

reputation may constitute defamation.

b. Defamation in a temporary form, such as speech, is slander.

c. Defamation in a permanent form, such as in writing, movies, videocassettes, or

DVDs, is libel.

d. When slander is involved, under common law actual loss is required unless the

false statement falls into certain categories such as that the person committed a

serious crime.

e. Truth is a defense in a defamation action.

f. Privileged statements are not subject to defamation lawsuits.

g. Statements made by senators and representatives on the floor of Congress are

privileged.

h. Statements made in a court of law are privileged.

i. Journalists have the protection of the actual malice test when they write about

public officials and public figures.

j. Actual malice means that a statement was made either with knowledge that it was

false or with a reckless disregard for its truth or falsity.

2. Disparagement

a. Disparagement involves any false statement communicated to others that

questions the quality of property or legal ownership rights.

b. Generally, to recover a plaintiff must show monetary loss.

D. Fraudulent Misrepresentation

1. Fraudulent misrepresentation occurs when false statements or actions are made which

induce reliance by another and cause injury or loss.

2. To demonstrate fraud in relation to a contract, the complaining party must prove the

existence of the five elements listed below.

a. That the other party made false representations about some material fact involved

in the contract.

b. That the other party made the representations knowing that they were false.

c. That the false representations were made with the intent that they be relied upon

by the innocent party.

d. That the complaining party made reasonable reliance on the false representations.

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Chapter 06 – Tort Law and Cybertorts

e. That the complaining part actually suffered some loss by relying on the false

representations.

E. Invasion of Privacy

1. Revelation of Confidential Records

a. Individuals who work with confidential records in their employment must ensure

that the records remain private.

b. It could be an invasion of privacy to discuss confidential matters for

nonprofessional reasons.

2. Intrusion

a. Privacy rights may be violated by an unwarranted intrusion into a person’s

expectation of privacy.

b. The issue is whether the plaintiff had a high expectation of privacy.

3. Creating a False Light

a. Creating a false light is akin to defamation.

b. It involves the publication of information about a person that shows the person in

an unfavorable manner.

4. Exploitation

a. Exploitation can occur when a party uses an individual’s photo, likeness, or name

without permission for advertising, marketing, or publicity.

b. Some courts treat the cause of action as a separate tort, calling it an invasion of

the right to publicity.

F. Infliction of Emotional Distress

1. Infliction of emotional distress includes intentional or reckless actions which cause

another to suffer severe emotional suffering.

2. Actions must be extreme and cause severe distress.

3. Many states allow recovery without an accompanying physical injury.

G. Misuse of Legal Procedure

1. The elements include:

a. Charges were brought against the plaintiff at an earlier time by the defendant.

b. The earlier case was resolved favorably for the plaintiff.

c. The earlier case was brought with malice and without probable cause.

2. Misuse of legal procedure is called wrongful civil proceedings with it involves the

filing of a false civil lawsuit.

3. Misuse of legal procedure is called malicious prosecution when it involves the

bringing of false criminal charges.

4. Abuse of process occurs when a legal procedure is used for a purpose other than that

for which it is intended.

5. There is no requirement for an abuse of process action that the earlier case be brought

without probable cause or that it have been resolved favorably for the plaintiff.

III. Negligence (6-3)

A. Elements of Negligence

1. Legal Duty

a. A legal duty must exist in order to establish liability through negligence.

b. Legal duty involves whether a tortfeasor should have reasonably foreseen a risk of

harm to the injured party.

2. Breach of Duty

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a. A breach of duty occurs if the alleged tortfeasor has not met the appropriate

standard of care.

b. To determine whether a tortfeasor has met the appropriate standard of care, a

reasonable person test is used.

c. When a professional is involved, the jury would have to know how a reasonable

professional would act under similar circumstances.

3. Actual and Proximate Cause

a. For the tortfeasor to be held liable, the unreasonable conduct must be tied to

actual and proximate cause.

b. Actual cause, or cause in fact, demonstrates that the cause (the unreasonable

conduct) led to the effect (the injury to the plaintiff).

c. In determining proximate cause, the court asks whether the harm that resulted

from the original unreasonable conduct was foreseeable at the time of the original

action.

4. More on Proximate Cause

a. The principle of foreseeability is the foundation of causation.

b. Foreseeability is comprised of at least four spin-offs:

(a) Foreseeability and types of harm.

(b) Foreseeability and classes of victim.

(d) Foreseeability and the nature of the victim.

c. Foreseeability in relation to the extent of harm is quite extensive and will

probably not eliminate liability.

d. In relation to foreseeability and the nature of the victim, “the tortfeasor takes the

victim as he finds him” which is commonly referred to as “the egg-shell skull

principle.”

5. Actual Harm

a. The injured party must show that actual harm was suffered.

b. Harm due to fright or humiliation is difficult to demonstrate, and courts often

require actual physical injury.

c. Actual harm can come in the form of property damage.

B. Defenses to Negligence

1. Contributory Negligence

a. Contributory negligence involves the failure of the injured party to be careful

enough to ensure his or her personal safety.

b. Contributory negligence completely prevents an injured party from recovering

damages.

c. Under the doctrine of last clear chance, a tortfeasor may be held liable if the

injured party can show that the tortfeasor had the last clear chance to avoid injury.

2. Comparative Negligence

a. Comparative negligence offsets recovery by a percentage of negligence if injured

party was also negligent.

b. Some states allow no recovery if an injured party is more than 50 percent

negligent.

3. Assumption of Risk

a. Assumption of risk involves the voluntary exposure of the victim to a known risk.

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b. If the victim was forced to enter the situation because of no other choice,

assumption of the risk does not exist.

IV. Strict Liability (6-4)

A. Grounds for Strict Liability

1. Strict liability is liability without fault.

2. Intent or negligence is not a factor.

3. Strict liability is generally applied when the harm results from an ultrahazardous or

very dangerous activity.

B. Product Liability

1. Product liability imposes liability on the manufacturer and seller of a product

produced and sold in a defective condition.

2. Liability extends to the producer, wholesaler and retailer.

3. In most states product liability is not available as a cause of action if the only property

damaged is the defective property itself.

V. Cybertorts (6-5)

A. The Nature of Cybertorts

1. An electronic tort involves the invasion, distortion, theft, falsification, misuse,

destruction, or exploitation of information stored in or related to electronic devices.

2. Physical harm to a victim is rare.

3. The victim’s reputation or emotional state may be harmed, or the victim may suffer

financial loss.

B. Cyber-defamation

a. Cyber-defamation is the communication of false and destructive information

through the use of electronic devices.

b. The Communications Decency Act was enacted to protect Internet service

providers from defamation suits for false statements posted by other individuals

on the Internet.

c. Most courts have found that Internet service providers are not liable when hackers

take action such as placing a virus into a system.

C. Cyber-disparagement

1. E-disparagement involves disparagement on the Internet.

2. Businesses that solicit videos from consumers used as advertisements on web site

postings are vulnerable.

D. Cyber-invasion of Privacy

1. Privacy and Employees

a. The low expectation of privacy that has existed in relation to governmental

employees also now extends to employees within the private sector.

b. The fact that a worker knows that the company monitors computer use means that

the expectation is low.

c. Issues arise when employees use their own devices at work.

(a) Some employers have the IT department configure personal devices so that

certain clearly identified functions are for business while others are for

personal use.

(b) The better approach is to distribute company-owned devices that the employee

is permitted to use for personal reasons, with the caveat that the personal

functions on the company-owned device may be open to inspection.

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2. Privacy and Clients

a. The failure to protect client records on paper, on paper or in a computer, can result

in an invasion of privacy lawsuit.

b. Some courts have held that records stored in a computer require a degree of

protection greater than that given to paper records.

c. The law is unsettled in regard to computer related invasion of privacy.

3. Private Privacy and Public Privacy

a. The law recognizes a difference between private privacy and public privacy.

b. A concern that has arisen is the publication of what is essentially public

information.

4. Data Mining of Public Private Data

a. Data mining involves stringing multiple strings of data together for a package that

the target considers a compilation of private information although it came from

public sources.

b. To the extent that the victim is harmed, he or she ought to have a cause of action

against the hacker.

VI. Remedies for Torts (6-6)

A. The Right to Damages

1. Economic compensatory damages are those that are directly quantifiable.

2. Non-economic compensatory damages are those that are intangible and not directly

quantifiable.

3. An award of compensatory damages may be reduced in a state that uses comparative

negligence.

4. Punitive damages are meant to punish the tortfeasor and, some courts say, comfort the

victim.

B. The Right to an Injunction

1. An injunction is an order to prevent someone from performing a particular act or the

court may order a wrongdoer to take positive steps to alleviate a problem.

2. Contempt of court is a remedy for the deliberate failure to obey an injunction.

VII. Developments in Tort Law (6-7)

A. Survival Statutes and Wrongful Death

1. Survival Statutes

a. By passing survival statutes, many states have revised the common law rule that

at someone’s death, his or her right to bring a lawsuit also died.

b. Some limits are placed on survival statutes such as that suits cannot be brought for

libel or slander after the death of the defamed person.

2. Wrongful Death Statutes

a. Wrongful death statutes preserve the right to bring a lawsuit if a death is caused

by the negligence or intentional conduct of the person who caused the death.

b. Generally, only those family members who have lost the support of the deceased

have the right to bring a wrongful death suit.

B. The Tort Reform Movement

1. Statutes of Repose

a. Statutes of repose establish a limit in years beyond which an injured party could

not bring a lawsuit for an injury caused by a product.

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b. The limitation would be placed on end users.

c. Statutes of repose have been suggested as a tort reform measure in medical

malpractice lawsuits.

d. Fraudulent activity may be an exception recognized by a statute of repose

2. Comparative Negligence and Product Liability

a. Under a comparative negligence theory, the responsibility of a manufacturer in a

product liability case may be lessened by the degree the plaintiff’s own

negligence contributes to his or her injury.

b. Some statutes say the manufacturer can escape liability altogether if the plaintiff’s

share in the responsibility exceeds fifty percent.

3. Wrongful Death Reform

a. Wrongful death reform measures maintain that a wrongful death action cannot be

instituted by family members if the deceased recovered damages from the

defendant in a prior lawsuit.

b. The deceased is said to have waived rights by recovering under the original

negligence action.

C. Cultural Paradigms and Balance in Tort Law

1. Cultural Paradigms

a. A paradigm is an unchallenged world view that establishes the rules by which

everyone in a particular culture thinks, speaks, and acts.

b. The problem with tort reform is that it challenges the assumptions of the legal

paradigm without offering an alternative paradigm.

2. Balance in Tort Law

a. Opponents of tort reform believe that the delicately balanced tort law paradigm is

threatened by clueless agents of tort reform.

b. A fundamental rule of the tort law paradigm is that people have a duty not to harm

one another and when they do cause harm, whether intentionally, through

carelessness, or by engaging in a dangerous activity, they pay.

V. Background Information

A. Cross-Cultural Notes

1. English law does not have an express right to privacy. A number of rights, however,

relate to privacy. For example, in some ways, the breach of confidence type of claim

approaches the right to privacy. This is discussed at the FindLaw UK website at

http://findlaw.co.uk/law/government/constitutional_law/fundamental_rights/500284.h

tml.

2. The European University Institute provides information about differing European

laws pertaining to defamation at http://journalism.cmpf.eui.eu/maps/defamation-law/.

3. The following article contains interesting information regarding the application of

foreign law to litigation, including torts: Eugene Volokh, Religious Law (Especially

Islamic Law) in American Courts, 66 Okla. L. Rev. 431 (2014).

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B. Historical Fact

1. Much of British tort law developed over disputes about land ownership and between

neighbors. Because land was typically divided into scattered parcels,

disputes often arose between neighbors about boundaries and interference. A

typical tort was a violent raid by one land owner on a neighbor’s livestock or

produce. Common law had remedies for those who wanted to enjoy

their land properly. However, the Industrial Revolution brought new sources of

danger to the individual. As cities became more crowded, tort laws were devised to

address specific urban problems, such as assault. Offenses due to negligence, such as

carelessness with fire, spawned a new group of torts described as “negligence.”

2. An interesting account regarding the origination of tort law is contained in the

following article: Nelson P. Miller, An Ancient Law of Care, 26 Whittier L. Rev. 3

(2004).

C. State Variations

1. Information regarding various states and the application of contributory negligence

and comparative fault from the Claims Journal can be found at

http://www.claimsjournal.com/news/national/2013/09/05/235755.htm.

2. In Nebraska, any person engaged in the disposal of low-level radioactive waste is

subject to strict liability in tort for property damage, bodily injury, or death resulting

from such disposal.

3. In Tennessee, if damages are proven, an adult child may recover for loss of

consortium. See Jordan v. Baptist here Rivers Hospital, 984 S.W.2d 593 (1999).

VI. Terms

1. The words assault and somersault both come from the Latin verb salire, meaning

“to jump.”

2. During the Middle Ages, the term libellus, meaning “little book,” was used to

describe pamphlets or leaflets containing personal attacks on well-known

people.

Eventually the name on the leaflets, modified to libel, came to stand for any

published statement damaging to someone’s reputation.

3. “Hedonic damages” address the loss of the value of life and are general allowed. The

term was coined by a Chicago economist, Stan V. Smith.

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VII. Related Cases

1. In a November 1983 issue of Hustler magazine, a parody of an advertisement portrayed

television evangelist Jerry Falwell as a drunken, incestuous hypocrite. The parody

contained a disclaimer, “ad parody—not to be taken seriously.” In Hustler Magazine,

Inc. v. Falwell, 485 U.S. 46 (1988), the U.S. Supreme Court addressed Falwell’s claim

for the intentional infliction of emotional distress and ruled that in such cases, public

figures may not recover for the tort of the intentional infliction of emotional distress

without showing that the publication contains a false statement of fact which was made

with actual malice, meaning knowledge that the statement was false or with reckless

disregard as to its truth or falsity.

2. As reported in the online ABA Journal, at

http://www.abajournal.com/news/article/jury_awards_patient_500k_for_doctors_defam

atory_comments_while_he_was_sedat, a Virginia jury in 2015 awarded a patient

$500,000, including $200,000 in punitive damages, because of defamatory comments

made by his anesthesiologist while he was sedated for a colonoscopy.

3. As reported in the online ABA Journal, at

http://www.abajournal.com/news/article/jury_awards_150m_against_chrysler_in_fiery_

death_of_boy_4_after_jeep_is_rea, a Georgia jury awarded $150 million against Fiat

Chrysler Automobiles NV in a case involving the death of a four-year-old in a fiery

rear–end crash. Design of the position of the gas tank in the vehicle at issue was

involved.

4. When a drunken man tripped on a rotten plank in a sidewalk and then sued for damages,

the judge in an early California case stated that “a drunken man has as good a right to a

perfect sidewalk as a sober man, and he needs one a good deal more.”

5. In Chadd v. U.S., ___ F.3d ___, 2015 WL 4509174, a divided Ninth Circuit ruled that

sovereign immunity protects the U.S. government from being held liable for a mountain

goat’s attack on a park visitor. The court ruled that the park service had discretion under

the Federal Tort Claims Act to decide how the animal that was known to be aggressive

should be handled.

6. The Supreme Court of Mississippi found that an issue of fact as to the horse owner’s

negligence precluded an entry of summary judgment in a case in which a runaway horse

crashed into an automobile. Carpenter v. Nobile, 620 So.2d 961 (Miss. 1993).

7. A motorcyclist sued a truck stop restaurant after he hit a pothole in the parking lot and

received head injuries. The appellate court found the motorcyclist 50 percent at fault for

not wearing a helmet and for not avoiding the pothole. As a result, his damages award

was cut in half. Landry v. Roe, 597 So.2d 14 (La. 1992).

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VIII. Teaching Tips and Additional Resources

1. The web site of the U.S. Department of Justice has a “Computer Crime and Intellectual

Property” section at http://www.cybercrime.gov/. The site contains information

regarding how to report cyber crime along with reports of recent arrests and other

information.

2. An article addressing disagreement as to medical malpractice reform can be found in

Forbes at

http://www.forbes.com/sites/rickungar/2011/02/10/gop-fights-with-itself-over-medical-

malpractice-reform/.

3. The Internet site for FindLaw.com has an article titled “Defamation: When Careless

Words Can Be Costly” at http://library.findlaw.com/1999/Jul/1/128248.html.

4. At the Internet site for CNN,

http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0103/29/lkl.00.html, an interview between

Larry King; Marc Christian; and Christian’s lawyer, Marvin Mitchelson discussing the

litigation involving Christian’s relationship with Rock Hudson and the settlement he

received.

5. An article titled “How Privacy Vanishes Online” from the New York Times addressing

data mining is available at

http://www.nytimes.com/2010/03/17/technology/17privacy.html.

6. Students may confuse the concept of product liability with warranties. Explain that a

person’s rights under the product liability law are based on obligations of the seller or

manufacturer rather than on warranty coverage included as part of an agreement. A

seller or manufacturer can rarely, if ever, use contract terms to modify obligations

imposed by product liability laws or to limit amounts a person can recover as damages.

Thus, a person can use product liability laws to hold a seller or manufacturer liable for

product defects, even if they are not covered in a warranty.

7. Ask students if they have ever been victims of a tort. If so, did the torts involve damage

to their physical well-being, their property, or their reputation? Ask students if the torts

could be categorized as crimes.

8. Have students research state laws that apply to shoplifting. Suggest that they also talk to

store owners about how they handle shoplifters—what are responsible grounds for

suspecting a person of shoplifting and what constitutes a reasonable method of handling

a suspected shoplifter?

9. An article from The Washington Post titled “Why Tort Liability for Data Breaches Won’t

Improve Cybersecurity,” discussing why tort lawsuits are an ineffective method for

causing companies to improve security measures, is available at

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Chapter 06 – Tort Law and Cybertorts

https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/volokh-conspiracy/wp/2015/01/11/why-tort-liabi

lity-for-data-breaches-wont-improve-cybersecurity/.

10. Information is available from the U.S. Department of Homeland Security regarding

cybersecurity, including a section on cybersecurity insurance to protect against risk, at

http://www.dhs.gov/topic/cybersecurity.

11. A 2015 USA Today article titled “Cop Who Sued Starbucks for Hot Coffee Delayed ER”

reports on the progress of a lawsuit against Starbucks.

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