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Chapter 11: Culture, Communication, and Conflict
Chapter 11
1. Define and describe characteristics of intercultural conflict.
2. Be able to discuss three approaches—social science, interpretive, and critical—to studying
conflict.
3. Be able to identify five types of interpersonal conflict.
4. Explain the role of cultural values, family influences, gender, and ethnicity in interpersonal
conflict.
5. Be able to discuss some of the contexts that contribute to social conflict.
6. Explain some strategies for dealing with conflict.
7. Be able to distinguish productive from destructive conflict.
8. Describe characteristics and advantages of mediation.
Key Terms
• Accommodating style
• Conflict
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Chapter 11: Culture, Communication, and Conflict
• Peacebuilding
• Restraint approach
• Social movements
Detailed Chapter Outline
o Intergenerational conflicts can occur in the workplace.
o Conflicts can also happen on a societal level.
o Social media can also exacerbate conflict at all levels, from nasty Tweets and
retweets to sophisticated ISIS Internet recruitment, in which citizens in any country
can be radicalized at any time.
differ from other kinds of conflict?
o One unique characteristic is that intercultural conflicts tend to be more ambiguous
than intracultural conflict.
o Other characteristics involve language issues and contradictory conflict styles.
A. Ambiguity
• Issues surrounding language may be important to intercultural conflict.
o When individuals don’t know the language well, it is very difficult to handle
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conflict effectively. At the same time, silence is not always a bad thing.
o Sometimes it provides a “cooling off” period, allowing things to settle down.
Depending on the cultural context, silence can be very appropriate.
C. Contradictory Conflict Styles
• This section, which takes a social science approach, identifies cultural influences in
approaches to conflict, different types of conflict, and different strategies and tactics for
responding to conflict.
o A key question is this: Is open conflict good or bad?
o Another key question is this: What is the best way to handle conflict when it arises?
own or another person’s face and is a universal concept; how individuals “do”
facework varies from culture to culture and influences conflict styles.
• Communication scholar Ting-Toomey and her colleagues have conducted a number of
studies showing that people from individualistic societies tend to be more concerned
with saving their own face than another person’s, so they tend to use more direct
and making him or her look good is considered a skillful facework style.
o However, some evidence indicates that not all collectivistic societies prefer
indirect ways of dealing with conflict.
o How someone chooses to deal with conflict in any situation depends on the type
of conflict and the relationship she or he has with the other person (Cai & Fink,
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2002; Ting-Toomey & Oetzel, 2013).
B. Religion and Conflict
• Religious beliefs are often a source of very strongly held views that can cause conflict
with others who may not share those views.
o Nearby in Utah, conflicts between Mormons and non-Mormons are not
o Throughout European history, for example, the persecution of Jews often has been
violent; recall, for instance, the atrocities of the Inquisition and the Holocaust.
• The following are the types of conflict:
o Affective conflict occurs when people become aware that their feelings and
emotions are incompatible.
o Goal conflict occurs when people disagree about a preferred outcome or end state.
C. Family Influences
• Most people deal with conflict in the way they learned while growing up—their default
style.
o A primary influence is one’s family background; some families prefer a particular
o Or, people may prefer to sacrifice their own self-esteem in order to preserve the
relationship.
o Sometimes, people try very hard to reject the conflict styles they saw their parents
using.
• Family conflict can also arise from generational differences in immigrant families that
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• Other immigrant families may have conflicts over arranged marriages, dating, and other
cultural expectations that may highlight differences between the country of origin and
the new homeland.
D. Intercultural Conflict Styles
▪ Some cultural groups think that conflict is fundamentally a good thing; these
groups feel that it is best to approach conflict very directly, because working
through conflicts constructively results in stronger, healthier, and more
satisfying relationships.
▪ People who take this approach concentrate on using very precise language.
▪ When conflict does arise, the strong spiritual value of pacifism dictates a
nonresistant response—often avoidance or dealing with conflict very
indirectly (Kraybill, 2001).
▪ Also, these groups think that when members disagree they should adhere to
the consensus of the group rather than engage in conflict.
suppress feelings; that is, they show emotion through expressive nonverbal
behavior and vocalization.
o They also think that this outward display of emotions means that one really cares
and is committed to resolving the conflict.
• On the other hand, people who believe in the restraint approach think that
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keeping one’s emotions in check and protecting the “face” or honor of the other
person.
2005).
o The discussion style combines the direct and emotionally restrained approaches
and emphasizes a verbally direct approach for dealing with disagreements—to
“say what you mean and mean what you say.”
▪ People who use this style are comfortable expressing disagreements directly
conflict.
o The accommodating style emphasizes an indirect approach for dealing with
conflict and a more emotionally restrained manner.
▪ People who use this style may be ambiguous and indirect in expressing their
views, thinking that this is a way to ensure that the conflict “doesn’t get out
strengthen relationships also use mediation, but mainly in formal settings
(lawyers, real estate agents, therapists).
o The dynamic style uses an indirect style of communicating along with a more
emotionally intense expressiveness.
▪ They are comfortable with more emotionally confrontational talk and view
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one style over another, one must be careful not to stereotype.
• Also, these cultural differences may depend on the following factors:
o Whether regions have been historically homogeneous and isolated from other
cultures
ways in some contexts: Men using a more engagement conflict style, whereas
women use a more accommodating style (Brewer, Mitchell, & Weber, 2002; Cai
& Fink, 2002; Davis, Capobianco, & Kraus, 2010).
• Ethnicity may also influence conflict style.
o At least one study showed that Asian and Latino Americans tended to use
o In their study of African American and European American women’s views on
workplace conflict, communication scholars Lynn Turner and Robert Shuter
(2004) found that African American women viewed workplace conflict more
negatively, more passively, and with less optimism about a positive resolution
than European American women.
historical aspects of conflict.
o In these perspectives, conflict is far more complex than the ways that interpersonal
conflict is enacted. It is deeply rooted in cultural differences in these contexts.
• Social conflict arises from unequal or unjust social relationships.
o For example, some experts say it’s just hooliganism pure and simple: young
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discontent with the West, particularly in France, because many of the rioters come
from Islamic backgrounds.
• The rioting in both England and France started with those economically marginalized in
society (i.e., the common denominator in both countries): the perpetrators come from poor
provoked into interrogating social inequities and begin the long process of changing
any society.
A. Social Movements
• Some conflict may be motivated by a desire to bring about social change.
o In social movements, individuals work together to bring about social change.
• Many interpersonal conflicts arise and must be understood against the backdrop of
large-scale social movements designed to change contemporary society.
o Although nonviolence is not the only form of confrontation employed by social
movements, its use has a long history—from Mahatma Gandhi’s struggle for
India’s independence from Britain, to the civil rights struggle in the United States,
B. Historical and Political Contexts
• People know that derogatory words can be a powerful source of conflict.
o The force that many derogatory words carry comes from their historical usage and
the history of oppression to which they refer.
• It is only through understanding the past that people can understand what it means to be
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in positions of conflict.
• By reducing conflict to the level of interpersonal interaction, people lose sight of the
larger social and political forces that contextualize these conflicts. People are in conflict
for reasons that extend far beyond personal communication styles..
• The following are seven suggestions for dealing with interpersonal conflict:
o One should stay centered and not polarize.
o One should maintain contact.
o One should recognize the existence of different styles.
o One should identify one’s preferred style.
speaking and being understood; it involves listening and speaking, not to persuade, but
to clarify—even to clarify and truly understand an opposing viewpoint.
o Dialogue is possible only between two persons or two groups whose power
relationship is more or less in balance.
• Conflict is often exacerbated because of the unwillingness of partners to recognize
different style.
• In most aspects of intercultural communication, adaptability and flexibility serve people
well—and conflict communication is no exception.
• It is important to understand the larger social, economic, political, and historical
contexts that give meaning to many types of conflict.
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• A final suggestion for facilitating conflict is to consider forgiveness.
o This means letting go of—not forgetting—feelings of revenge.
o The importance of compensation in preventing violent revenge and encouraging
forgiveness can’t be overstated.
• Sometimes two individuals or groups cannot work through conflict on their own.
o They may request an intermediary, or one may be assigned to intervene
(Donohue, 2006).
o In some societies, these third parties may be rather informal. In Western societies,
though, they tend to be built into the legal and judicial system.
vary but share many characteristics.
• Contemporary mediators have learned some lessons from the traditional non-Western
models, and mediation is used increasingly in the United States and other countries to
resolve conflicts.
o Mediation is advantageous because it relies on the disputing parties’ active
C. Peacebuilding
• Some of the conflicts described in this chapter involve longstanding and violent
intergroup conflicts that have lasted for decades, often between ethnic or religious
groups within the same geographic area.
o Examples of intergroup conflicts include Palestinians and Israelis, Sunni and Shia
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• Experts stress that these types of longstanding “intractable” conflicts require special
communication processes and a reframing of the problem and the enemy.
o In addition, both sides need to reframe the problems such that solutions require
interdependence and engagement in “reasonable and skilled disagreement” (p. xi).
and war).
o The idea behind the facilitated intergroup dialogue, and peacebuilding, is that
government leaders alone cannot negotiate a true peace in these types of conflict.
• The facilitated intergroup dialogue process usually begins with bringing together
members from the two sides—persons, often community leaders, who are interested in
▪ The second step is building a collective vision for the future.
▪ The final step is developing a specific action plan to achieve peaceful
collaboration.
• The characteristics of productive conflict approach for individuals or groups is as
follows:
communication
• The characteristics of destructive conflict approach for individuals or groups is as
follows:
o Escalate and broaden conflict from the original problem, bringing in unrelated
issues
1. How can a dialectical perspective be applied to intercultural conflict situations?
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Chapter 11: Culture, Communication, and Conflict
2. Why is it important to understand the context in which intercultural conflict occurs?
3. How are conflict strategies used in social movements?
4. How does an attitude of forgiveness facilitate conflict resolution?
5. What are some general suggestions for dealing with intercultural conflict?
6. Why is it important to understand the context in which an intercultural conflict occurs?
7. What are the characteristics of intercultural conflict?
8. Identify and provide examples of the five different types of conflict.
9. Should conflict be welcomed or avoided?
10. What are some gender and ethnic group conflict style differences?
11. How did your family handle conflicts? Do you handle conflicts in the same way?
12. Identify an instance in which the conflict parties used direct or indirect approaches to
conflict resolution.
13. How might emotional expressiveness be interpreted in China versus the Amish?
14. What are some of the differences between constructive and destructive conflict?
15. Can you think of any local examples of religious conflict?
16. How might a competitive approach to conflict impact interpersonal relationships?
17. In what ways might the economic context influence conflict?
18. Identify a social movement that has brought (or is bringing) social change in your lifetime.
What strategies were used? Were they effective?
19. What, in your opinion, is the possibility that the war in Iraq will result in historical
1. Guest Lecture on Cultures in Conflict Exercise: The purpose of this exercise is to acquaint
students with a cultural conflict and the history of that conflict. You should invite a speaker
2. Intercultural Conflict Role Plays: This exercise encourages students to practice various
strategies for managing or resolving intercultural conflicts. Have students form groups.
Instruct each group to develop a scenario that depicts an intercultural conflict. They should
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Chapter 11: Culture, Communication, and Conflict
3. Alternative to Intercultural Conflict Role Plays: Have the students enact their role plays
without offering a strategy or resolution to their scenario. The class can then try to answer
4. Identifying One’s Preferred Style of Managing Conflict Exercise: People’s preferred style
of dealing with conflicts is often based (perhaps unconsciously) on the style they observed
as children. This exercise is designed to help students identify their preferred style of
dealing with conflict by reflecting on the style(s) they grew up with or the style that stands
out for them. Begin the exercise by asking students to reflect on the style of conflict they
were most exposed to as children. You may need to suggest that they think about specific
instances in which a conflict in their family arose and the way that conflict was handled.
For instance, in one family, every time there was a conflict, a loud shouting match ensued.
Then, everybody went to their rooms for a nap. When they all awoke, the family members
acted as if the conflict had never happened. After the students identify the style(s) of
handling conflict to which they were exposed, ask them to reflect on whether this is their
preferred style as adults or whether they have consciously or unconsciously changed their
preferred style of managing conflict. Debrief this exercise by asking students to share their
5. Alternative to Identifying One’s Preferred Style of Managing Conflict: Have students take
one of the free online conflict inventories that provide printable results. The following are
examples of conflict inventories:
OR 97225, Phone: 503-297-4622.
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Chapter 11: Culture, Communication, and Conflict
6. Attitudes toward Conflict Exercise: To understand and manage conflict, students need to
become aware of their personal feelings toward conflict. In this simple exercise, ask
students to write down the first words that come into their minds when they think of
7. Dealing with Everyday Conflict: Since a majority of the students in the class will confront
intercultural conflict on a small scale, have them identify how the various styles might be
8. Case Study Analysis: In small groups, have students discuss and analyze case studies that
involve intercultural conflict and misunderstandings. Such case studies can be located in
the news, in a variety of intercultural training, and in resource books available through
1. Arab and Jew: Wounded Spirits in a Promised Land (Distributed by PBS Video,
2. A Clash of Cultures (Distributed by Annenberg/CPB Project, 1986, 58 minutes)
This video shows the conflicts that emerge from the mixing of cultures in Africa.
3. Chairy Tale (Distributed by Film and Video Rental Center, Syracuse University, 10
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Chapter 11: Culture, Communication, and Conflict
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This is a fairy tale in a modem manner, told without words. The film shows a simple ballet
of a young man with a chair. The young man tries to sit but the chair declines to be sat
upon. The ensuing struggle, first for mastery and then for understanding, forms the story.
4. The Story of Qui Ju (Director: Zhang Yimou, Sony Pictures 1993, 100 minutes)
The movie begins with Qui Ju (Gong Li) transporting her injured husband Wan Qinglai
5. Communicating across Cultures (Copeland Griggs Productions, 1987, 30 minutes)
6. Village of 100 (ATS Media, 1998, 2 minutes)
100 people, with all existing ratios remaining the same, what would it look like?” This
video is useful as a discussion starter.
7. Cold Water: Intercultural Adjustment and Values Conflict of Foreign Students and
Scholars at an American University (The Intercultural Press, 1988, 48 minutes)
8. A Tale of O (Distributed by GoodMeasure Inc., 1993, originally 1979, 45 minutes)
This videotape investigates the consequences of being different. It focuses on a group in
which a few individuals are “the many,” called the X’s, and the others are referred to as