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4. Tatum defines a “White ally” as everything but someone who
a. understands privilege can be used to make a more equitable system
b. points out privilege in others
c. that privilege has been historically used for such, and to recognize it
d. they can align themselves with that history
Essay and Discussion Questions:
1. What was a negative consequence of desegregation of schools in the South?
2. What are the significant issues regarding largely White teachers in predominantly Black
public schools?
3. How does Tatum argue that White teachers can still affirm the identities of their Black
students in the classroom?
4. What are the consequences of a teacher not supporting the identities of his or her students?
5. What does Tatum mean when she uses the term “White ally”? What can a “White ally” do to
help?
Internet Sites and Questions for Further Discussion:
Review this handbook created by the National Education Association on the topic of teaching
diverse populations. Are the suggestions found throughout consistent with what Tatum suggests
41. “From the Achievement Gap to the Education Debt: Understanding Achievement in
U.S. Schools,” Gloria Ladson-Billings
Ladson-Billings addresses the “achievement gap”, a catchphrase to describe the difference in
academic performance between White, minority, and lower socio-economic status students. This
gap has been found to be most significantly affected by race and ethnicity, with a brief review of
some of the potential causes. Ladson-Billings suggests avoiding too much focus on the gap,
because most of the solutions are short-term in nature, and instead to look at the longer standing
“educational debt” akin to the financial national debt. This debt is seen as the underlying cause
of much of our national problems with regard to achievement, and that addressing it is necessary
to truly have desegregated schools, as well as to come closer to fully realizing equality in the
United States.
Multiple Choice Questions:
1. In research by Ladson-Billings, the point differential measuring the Achievement Gap
between Black/Latino/Latina and White students in Fourth Grade math scores was
a. 15 points
b. 17 points
c. 20 points
d. 26 points
2. All but which of the following are known to be correlated with academic achievement?
a. School composition
b. Student’s family background
c. Teacher’s verbal skills
d. Student’s ethnic background
3. Ladson-Billings via metaphor chooses to call the achievement gap
a. education debt
b. education deficit
c. national debt
d. education surplus
4. During the Jim Crow south, the school year was typically four months long because of
a. students skipping class
b. teachers not willing to teach longer
c. weather
d. agricultural seasons
5. Chicago public schools spend about _________ per pupil in a city school that is 87% Black
and Latino
a. $6,232
b. $8,482
c. $9,299
d. $11,627
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6. The largest beneficiaries of affirmative action were
a. Black males
b. White males
c. White women
d. Latino males
7. The primary reason we should be addressing the educational debt is
a. the impact it has on present education progress
b. the value of understanding the debt and its connection to previous research findings on
education
c. the potential for creating a better educational future
d. all of these choices are correct
Essay and Discussion Questions:
1. How does Ladson-Billings define the “achievement gap” frequently discussed in the United
States?
2. What are the various things discussed as contributing to the “achievement gap” in American
education?
3. Why does Ladson-Billings argue that we, as a society, should not be focusing too specifically
on the “achievement gap”?
4. What is the historical context of the educational debt as discussed by Ladson-Billings? Give
examples from the past.
5. What role does economics play on the current state of the “educational debt” in the United
States?
6. According to Ladson-Billings, what are the long-term consequences in the United States of
the “educational debt” if it goes unaddressed?
Internet Sites and Questions for Further Discussion:
Examine the publications on this site from the National Center for Education Statistics. These
publications focus on the achievement gap. Do you feel potential solutions outlined are, as
Ladson-Billings argues, only short-term solutions? What would you suggest as solutions that
acknowledge these problems, but also address the educational debt?
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42. “How a Scholarship Girl Becomes a Soldier: The Militarization of Latina/o Youth in
Chicago Public Schools,” Gina Perez
Gina Perez explores the complicated relationship between young Latina/o students in Chicago
and the U.S. military. Perez argues that in addition to limited economic opportunities, gendered
understandings of autonomy, family obligations, honor and respectability influence, how young
people respond to the increasingly militarized educational context.
Multiple Choice Questions:
1. For Chicago Puerto Ricans, the military is an institution understood to be:
a. an unacceptable route to success
b. a predator to young students hoping to gain higher education
c. an important avenue of social mobility
d. a potential interruption on the road of social mobility
2. Studies of Chicago have found that _______________of the jobs requiring only a high
school diploma pay a living wage for a family with dependent children:
a. 50%
b. none
c. all
d. 80%
3. _______________ are the most economically disadvantaged group in all of Chicago:
a. Mexicans
b. Blacks
c. Puerto Ricans
d. Cubans
4. Chicago public schools lead the nation with more than _______________students
participating in public school military programs.
a. 2,000
b. 200
c. 6,000
d. 10,000
5. Young Latinas are particularly vulnerable to military appeals to their sense of:
a. self
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b. family obligation
c. sexual propriety
d. femininity
6. Military involvement allegedly keeps young men out of _______________:
a. early marriages
b. debt
c. gangs
d. hospitals
7. Between the years 2001 and 2004 the Pentagon Budget for JROTC programs was expected to
increase by more than:
a. $110 million
b. $2 million
c. $50 million
d. $200 thousand
Essay and Discussion Questions:
1. Discuss how gender expectations influence Latina/o youth to consider the military as a career
option.
2. What social benefits are alleged to result from the militarization of education as described by
Perez?
3. Identify the types of military programs currently active in or connected to Chicago public
schools. Are there students in Chicago schools who are not likely candidates for these
military programs?
4. Why were Perez’s students offended by her critique of the militarization of education?
Internet Sites and Questions for Further Study:
43. “Unspeakable Offenses: Untangling Race and Disability in Discourses of
Intersectionality,” Nirmala Erevelles and Andrea Minear
Erevelles and Minear argue that while intersectionality scholars focusing on the connection
between race and gender is important, that another factor; disability, should also be considered.
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Disability specifically as related to education is examined, focusing on the significantly higher
rates that students of color are labeled and tracked into “special needs” programs. They also
argue that the way in which disability is often seen as exclusively a biological, rather than social
condition causes it to not receive the consideration that it should.
Multiple Choice Questions:
1. In Angela Harris’ nuance theory, she argues that Black women’s oppression is:
a. similar to that of White women’s oppression
b. an intensified version of White women’s oppression
c. similar to that of Black men’s oppression
d. less severe than Black men’s oppression
2. Erevelles and Minear argue that intersectional studies by critical race feminist scholars
ignore:
a. income
b. education
c. disability
d. social standing
3. In Erevelles and Minear, Crenshaw argues that social movements about single identity
politics have
a. ignored intra-group differences
b. increased understanding of intra-group differences
c. have been detrimental to the identity in question
d. all of these choices are correct
4. Black children constitute ____ percent of total school enrolment, but ___ of those labeled
“mentally retarded”
a. 12%/25%
b. 14%/26%
c. 17%/33%
d. 19%/39%
5. Both Critical Race Theorists and disability scholars work from the assumption that race and
disability are
a. biological conditions
b. static labels
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c. social constructs
d. none of these choices are correct
6. Patricia Williams argues that acts of police violence against Black persons with other
marginalized identity categories is not an isolated incident, but what she calls
a. intersectional punishment
b. body murder
c. identity homicide
d. spirit murder
Essay and Discussion Questions:
1. What are the major issues discussed by Erevelles and Minear regarding the intersection
between being Black and disabled?
2. Define the term “spirit murder” as coined by Erevelles and Minear
Internet Sites and Questions for Further Discussion:
44. “Representations of Latina/o Sexuality in Popular Culture,” Deborah R. Vargas
This article examines the way in which Latinos and Latinas are portrayed in popular culture, with
an emphasis on how their sexuality is exaggerated or diminished as being “different” than that
associated with the prevalent White culture. Latino men portrayed as “Latin lovers” has been a
stereotype used for much of the past century, and actors who took on those roles found
themselves unable to escape that single personality. An emphasis on hypermasculinity to the
point of parody has also been used too often. Latinas, however, are often presented in a
dichotomous way as either the virgin or mother, or the prostitute, with little in between. The
suggestion is rather straightforward: to present Latinos and Latinas in a more realistic, diverse
manner in popular culture rather than relying on old clichés.
Multiple Choice Questions:
1. In the early part of the 20th century, the term Latin was associated with
a. Latin Americans
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b. Italians, Spaniards, and Latin Americans
c. Italians
d. Caribbean populations
2. One of the most visible stages in presenting Latino hypermasculinity has been
a. Hollywood films
b. boxing
c. soccer
d. baseball
3. Latinas have been typically stereotyped by popular culture into how many categories?
a. 2
b. 3
c. 4
d. 5
4. How does Deborah R. Vargas suggest policy affecting Latinos and Latinas be changed?
a. by more heterogeneous representation of Latino/Latina sexualities
b. by avoiding presentations of Latino/Latina sexuality altogether
c. by keeping things as they are now and just allowing natural evolution
d. none of these choices are correct
Essay and Discussion Questions:
1. Describe the male Latino stereotype perpetrated frequently in American popular culture.
Give examples.
2. Describe the dichotomous stereotyping Latina women are subject to according to Vargas.
Can you give examples in modern media?
3. What are the ways in which Latino and Latina sexuality is depicted in the mass media. What
are the consequences of this?
4. What is the role of skin color in media representation of Latinos and Latinas in the United
States?
Internet Sites and Questions for Further Discussion
The following website outlines and provides examples of negative stereotypes that have been
portrayed for Latinos and Latinas in popular culture. Can you think of any other examples? Can
45. “Where’s the Honor? Attitudes toward the ‘Fighting Sioux’ Nickname and Logo,”
Dana M. Williams
Williams provides an overview of the use of Native American stereotypes as sports mascots both
at the professional and college levels. While public opinion has been turning against these
images, some exceptions have been allowed (in cases in which the use was overwhelmingly
supported by the tribes in question), but little has been done to study the effects of these names
and logos on White students. The study centers on the University of North Dakota’s Fighting
Sioux, a school that has a sizeable population of the group being portrayed. Findings were
consistent with previous studies that found Native American students showed less support for the
imagery than their White counterparts did. While the study did not find that the Native
American students felt the use of the name and logo was hostile or abusive, they were also not as
supportive of its use.
Multiple Choice Questions:
1. Well intentioned, yet historically inaccurate portrayals of Native Americans has been found
to be/have
a. positive for self-esteem and image
b. negative for self-esteem
c. has no impact at all
d. not been studied
2. LaRocque’s 2004 study of University of North Dakota college students found that, when
presented with controversial images related to the school’s Native American imagery
a. Native American students showed greater hostility
b. Native American students showed no distress
c. White students showed increased hostility
d. White students showed greater tolerance
3. In Williams’ study, which group demonstrated the greatest support for the “Fighting Sioux”
nickname?
a. non-native minority students
b. White students
c. Native American students
d. no differences were found
4. Which group had the greatest resistance to the thought of changing the “Fighting Sioux”
nickname?
a. Those who attended fewer than five sporting events
b. Football and men’s basketball fans
c. Those who attended no sporting events
d. Football fans only
Essay and Discussion Questions:
1. In what ways have Native American youths been impacted by the continued use of Native
American imagery in sports teams?
2. Describe the findings of LaRocque’s 2004 study of the impact of Native American logos and
imagery in sports.
3. Summarize the findings of Williams’ study at the University of North Dakota. Were they
consistent with previous research on the topic of Native American logos in sports?
Internet Sites and Questions for Further Discussion:
Read the following article discussing the use of Native American names for professional sports
teams. Do you agree with the theory that teams can financially benefit from changing their
names and mascots to less racially charged ones?
46. “Media Magic: Making Class Invisible,” Gregory Mantsios
Gregory Mantsios examines the way media misrepresents social class by creating an illusion of
an egalitarian society and thereby hiding social and economic inequalities. Mantsios argues that
the media creates a false sense of universal membership in the middle class. He claims that the
working and middle classes come to fear and hold the poor responsible for their hardships while
remaining blind to the damage the upper class inflicts on society.
Multiple Choice Questions:
1. According to Gregory Mantsios in “Media Magic: Making Class Invisible,” the media
creates:
a. the illusion of an egalitarian society.
b. an accurate image of the poor, the middle class, and the wealthy.
c. unity among the poor, the middle class, and the wealthy.
d. a double standard.
2. According to Gregory Mantsios in “Media Magic: Making Class Invisible,” the poor are
portrayed in the media as:
a. responsible for their economic state.
b. invisible.
c. undeserving of assistance.
d. all of these answers are correct
3. According to Gregory Mantsios in “Media Magic: Making Class Invisible,” blaming the
poor for their situation ignores:
a. the systemic nature of poverty and the economic and political policies which create an
imbalance in wealth.
b. the culture of poverty
c. the individual characteristics responsible for poverty.
d. human nature.
4. Gregory Mantsios argues in “Media Magic: Making Class Invisible,” that the media
represents the concerns of the wealthy. Which of the following are examples of this?
a. the large amount of space devoted to business news and stock market quotes
b. the large quantity of coupons included in daily newspapers
c. the medias consistent focus on structural inequalities that cause social problems
d. the frequent coverage of movements for social change
5. According to Gregory Mantsios in “Media Magic: Making Class Invisible,” the media creates
a universal middle class. This results in:
a. the middle class fearing and blaming anyone who is less affluent.
b. more power to address poverty in America.
c. more unity in the fight against the waste of the wealthy.
d. the increasing size of the middle class.
6. According to Gregory Mantsios, among all the industrialized nations in the world,
_______________ is the most stratified.
a. Canada
b. Sweden
c. The United States
d. New Mexico
7. _______________ distinctions operate in virtually every aspect of our lives, determining the
nature of our work, the quality of our schooling, and the health and safety of our loved ones.
a. Class
b. Gender
c. Race
d. Work
Essay and Discussion Questions:
1. How does the media portray the poor? The wealthy? The middle class?
2. What effect does the media’s portrayal of the poor have on the poor, middle class, and
wealthy?
3. What is “blaming the victim”? How does this affect the image of the poor?
4. What examples do you recognize in the media that support or challenge Mantsios’ argument?
Internet Sites and Questions for Further Study:
1. What is media criticism?
2. In what way do television shows and films perpetuate classism?
Center for Media and Public Affairs:
1. In what way does the media influence society?
2. Explore the listing “entertainment media” and look for the article “Watching America: What
Television Tells Us About Our Lives.” What does television tell us about our lives? Discuss
ways in which you are aware of the media’s influence on your perception of society?
47. “Gender Norms in the Twilight Series,” Rebecca Hayes-Smith
Hayes-Smith examines the popular young adult book (and film) series about vampires and
werewolves, pointing out some major concerns with regard to the way in which gender and race
are portrayed. The main character, Bella, is portrayed as a weak, passive woman who
experiences conflict with other women and is portrayed as a caretaker to her family. The male
characters, Edward and Jacob, also stick to the predominant male gender traits of violence,
aggression, and treating women like property; a “prize” to be won. More subtle is the portrayal
of race and class: Jacob, the werewolf, is Native American, of lower socioeconomic status, and
is often insulted with otherwise racialized insults.
Multiple Choice Questions:
1. In the Twilight series, women are mostly portrayed as
a. strong and independent
b. whiny and unassertive
c. radical and boundary challenging
d. self-assured
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2. A subtle message Rebecca Hayes-Smith takes from the Twilight series is that violence is not
objectionable when people__________
a. are angry with one another
b. are helping others
c. are in love
d. are defending their own honor
3. A stereotype enforced by the portrayals of vampires versus werewolves in the Twilight series
is
a. gender norms
b. White supremacy
c. educational attainment
d. none of these choices are correct
Essay and Discussion Questions:
1. How are the male characters in the Twilight series portrayed? How do they treat the female
characters?
2. How does Hayes-Smith describe the gender role characteristics that define Bella in the
Twilight series?
3. In the Twilight series, what is the nature of most of the violence that victimizes female
characters?
4. What socioeconomic stereotypes are perpetrated throughout the Twilight series?
Internet Sites and Questions for Further Discussion:
An additional critique of the Twilight series from a feminist perspective, do you find that the
following site is consistent with Hayes-Smith’s perspective? Do you agree or disagree? If so,
why or why not?
48. “Rethinking Cyberfeminism(s): Race, Gender, and Embodiment,” Jessie Daniels
Jessie Daniels outlines the concept of cyberfeminism, a multifaceted interaction between
technology and gender. Two major areas are discussed, the first being the globalization of
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feminism that the Internet allows, and the second is the ability to engage in “identity tourism” in
an online capacity. For the first, access to the Internet may be heavily affected by the ability to
access technology based upon socioeconomic status, but beyond that it is able to cross racial and
ethnic lines. It also allows for a safe space for women who may be experiencing a multitude of
oppression based on their gender, and the ability to interact with others they would never be able
to meet otherwise. Identity tourism, on the other hand, is the ability for people on the Internet to
adopt a different gender or identity overall. Research shows, however, that people are less likely
to adopt a different identity when online, but instead use the resources and interactions as a way
to affirm and strengthen their own “real world” identity.
Multiple Choice Questions:
1. Cyberfeminism is
a. a monolithic entity
b. a wide array of theoretical and political stances
c. largely unestablished
d. a singular utopian vision
2. One reason that, across the world, women lag behind men in Internet access is due to:
a. economic resources
b. education
c. time constraints
d. lack of literacy
3. In the United States, the most significant contribution to the “digital divide” has been
a. gender
b. race
c. age
d. socioeconomic status
4. A positive aspect of cyberfeminism is that
a. it bypasses national states
b. it is not as affected by local opposition
c. it helps avoid mass media indifference
d. all of these choices are correct
5. Nouraie-Simone’s studied the importance of the Internet as related to
a. young Iranian women
b. young Sudanese women
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c. middle aged Moroccan women
d. young Native American women
6. Lisa Nakamura’s term for how people can experience the descriptors of another race or
gender is
a. cybertourism
b. identity tourism
c. identity policing
d. cyberpresentation
7. Research on actual online practices find that most people use the internet to
a. switch gender presentation
b. switch racial presentation
c. affirm their overall social identities
d. escape their overall social identities
Essay and Discussion Questions:
1. How does the “old” cyberfeminism differ from the “new” cyberfeminism according to Jessie
Daniels?
2. Explain the “digital divide”. How has it historically affected women?
3. In what ways has the rapid expansion of the Internet benefitted women from a feminist
perspective?
4. Explain Lisa Nakamura’s concept of “identity tourism.” How prevalently is it used on the
Internet?
Internet Sites and Questions for Further Discussion
49. “Brown Body, White Wonderland,” Tressie McMillan Cottom
McMillan Cottom addresses the attention Miley Cyrus received for a “twerking” performance on
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the MTV Video Music Awards, but rather than focusing on the overt sexuality and cultural
appropriation of her dance, she turns to the backup dancers that Cyrus used in the performance.
She argues that her use of less glamorous, but exclusively Black dancers, that she is reaffirming
the stereotype of the sexualized black woman as a novelty, something she herself has
experienced.
Multiple Choice Questions:
1. McMillan Cottom’s biggest concern in her article regarding Miley Cyrus focused on
a. ethnicity of dancers
b. appearance of dancers in performance*
c. cultural appropriation of her dancing
d. none of these choices are correct
Essay and Discussion Questions:
1. Explain Tressie McMillan Cottom’s critique of Miley Cyrus’ “twerking” performance. What
does she consider it an example of?
2. Describe the ways White males perceive Black female sexuality, based on the writings of
McMillan Cottom. Why do you think she experienced this dynamic?
3. What is McMillan Cottom’s perspective on the differences between Miley Cyrus and her
backup dancers during the performance in question.
Internet Sites and Questions for Further Discussion:
50. “The Construction of Black Masculinity: White Supremacy Now and Then,” Abby L.
Ferber
Ferber examines the problematic perception of Black males in a White supremacist system. She
argues that perceptions today as athletic figures are informed by past slave-associated stereotypes
as being physically adept but unintelligent, and having an animalistic, hypersexual nature.
Previous justification of these statements was based upon incorrect biological assumptions, but is
now attributed to Black culture. Ferber presents these modern stereotypes being heavily rooted
in professional athletics, with their presentation as strong “bad boys”, but largely under the
control of White quarterbacks in football, or White coaches in other sports. These issues are also
seen as a way for White populations to justify their power and control, by blaming shortcomings
not as a product of institutionalized racism, but as the fault of Black culture.
Multiple Choice Questions:
1. According to Feber, our society uses Black males as entertainment but
a. treats them with fear
b. treats them with respect
c. holds them in contempt
d. disregards them