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"Sustainable Food and Privilege: Why is Green Always White (and Male and
Upper Class)" Janani Balasubramanian
Food justice, Janani Balasubramanian argues, is fundamentally a race and class issue,
and food activists are not speaking about it as such. The emphasis on local food
economy fails to recognize the importance of United States support of agriculture in
other parts of the world. Activists of color who do admirable work in their communities
are often ignored by White activist writers and film makers. Thus we do not hear the
"variety of voices' that needs to be heard if universal food reform is to be achieved.
Balasubramania charges that the voices of people of color, like ______________ who
do brilliant food justice work in their communities are seldom heard.
a. Bryant Terry and Winona La Duke
b. Joel Salatin and Alice Waters
c. Eric Schlosser and Peter Singer
d. Alice Waters and Michael Pollan
"Media Magic: Making Class Invisible," Gregory Mantsios
Gregory Mantsios examines the way media misrepresents social class by creating an
illusion of an egalitarian society and thereby hiding social and economic inequalities.
Mantsios argues that the media creates a false sense of universal membership in the
middle class. He claims that the working and middle classes come to fear and hold the
poor responsible for their hardships while remaining blind to the damage the upper
class inflicts on society.
According to Gregory Mantsios in "Media Magic: Making Class Invisible," blaming
the poor for their situation ignores:
a. the systemic nature of poverty and the economic and political policies which create
an imbalance in wealth.
b. the culture of poverty
c. the individual characteristics responsible for poverty.
d. human nature.
"Is This A White Country, or What?" Lillian Rubin
Lillian Rubin demonstrates the links between economic competition, racial prejudice,
and the anti-immigration sentiments expressed by working class whites. Rubin points
out that while there is a long history of racial hostility toward immigrant groups in
America, the limited employment opportunities and the darker skin tones of recent
immigrants have intensified these hostilities. Racism and nativism, according to Rubin,
is apparent in Whites' views of recent immigrants and people of color. The visibility of
and the demands for recognition expressed by these groups are seen as threats to whites'
economic livelihood and their understanding of America. Rubin's interviews with
working class Whites illustrate this point, as well as two contradictions evident in
Whites' attitudes toward immigrants and people of color: Whites resent the unity of
these groups, yet they exclude them from dominant society. Whites criticize members
of these groups for their perceived failures as well as their successes. Rubin asserts that
Whites have begun to reclaim their ethnic heritage as a way to secure what they see as
their hard earned position of privilege in American society.
According to "Is This A White Country, or What?" the visibility of immigrant
groups and people of color has:
a. been well-received by most Whites.
b. led Whites to consider their own racial identity.
c. meant an end to racism in the U.S.
d. created unity of all races in the struggle against racism.
"Seeing Privilege Where It Isn"t: Marginalized Masculinities and the
Intersectionality of Privilege", Bethany M. Coston and Michael Kimmel
Coston and Kimmel take a different approach to studying intersectionality and
privilege, in this case the way in which a class with privilege (males) intersects with
one without (disabled, gay, and working class). They theorize that the reason for this
intersectional marginalization is that all three classes remove some element of
masculinity: physical prowess for the disabled, the dominant role in sexuality for gay
men, and expendability in the case of working class men. The primary focus becomes
that privilege too is not a dichotomous, black and white issue, but also one subject to
intersectionality.
A way in which working class males are marginalized is the fact that society sees them
as
a. not masculine enough
b. expendable
c. they are not marginalized
d. not hard workers
"Representations of Latina/o Sexuality in Popular Culture," Deborah R. Vargas
This article examines the way in which Latinos and Latinas are portrayed in popular
culture, with an emphasis on how their sexuality is exaggerated or diminished as being
"different" than that associated with the prevalent White culture. Latino men portrayed
as "Latin lovers" has been a stereotype used for much of the past century, and actors
who took on those roles found themselves unable to escape that single personality. An
emphasis on hypermasculinity to the point of parody has also been used too often.
Latinas, however, are often presented in a dichotomous way as either the virgin or
mother, or the prostitute, with little in between. The suggestion is rather
straightforward: to present Latinos and Latinas in a more realistic, diverse manner in
popular culture rather than relying on old clichs.
In the early part of the 20th century, the term Latin was associated with
a. Latin Americans
b. Italians, Spaniards, and Latin Americans
c. Italians
d. Caribbean populations
"Race as Class," Herbert J. Gans
Noting that most biologists argue that scientifically there can be no human "races' and
that sociologists argue that concepts of race are socially constructed, Gans links the
persistent lay definition of "race" to the hierarchy of social class in the U.S. The laity,
he claims, notice variations in select physical characteristics and "see" these variations
as markers of individual races. The lay public then uses their definitions of race to place
individuals in hierarchal categories that correspond to social class locations. Gans
further claims that many immigrant groups were "blanched" or "whitened" in the lay
imagination once those groups experienced upward mobility. This was not the case, he
says for African Americans. While the reasons for this exception are a "mystery" to
Gans, he expects it to persist unless class hierarchies finally disappear "in some utopian
future."
When descendants of European immigrants began to move up economically and
socially their skin color:
a. darkened
b. lightened
c. appeared lighter to "whites'
d. Was overlooked by "whites'
"Globalization and Its (Mal)econtents: The Gendered Moral and Political
Economy of Terrorism," Michael S. Kimmel
This article by Michael S. Kimmel examines the heavily gendered nature of terrorist
groups of varying locations and ideologies. The role of globalization and its associated
egalitarianism is cited as a major motivator for American right wing extremist groups
such as White Aryan Resistance. Leaders create and spread propaganda to target
disenfranchised young males who feel their opportunities have been restricted by the
growth of immigration and women entering the workforce. According to them, this is
perpetrated both by the feminist emasculation of men, and the control of the Jews. This
emphasis on anti-Semitism and masculinity is seen in Scandinavian extremist groups as
well, with the addition of a fear of homosexuality growing to undermine masculinity.
The attention shifts to Al Qaida and the Taliban, Islamic extremists who recruit
significantly amongst young men who have dwindling career opportunities. The rigid
gender politics of the Taliban are theorized to be the result of women entering the
workforce and to counteract they use a literal interpretation of the Quran to
remasculinize men (hence the mandatory growth of beards), and the refeminization of
women (removing them from the public sphere). The so-called "mastermind" of the
9/11 hijackings, Mohammad Atta, is presented as a man who failed at attaining
employment, which was more disturbing to him next to his sisters, one of whom is a
professor and the other a doctor, and thus attracted to this fundamentalism as a way to
counteract his shortcomings.
According to Kimmel, the ideological resource utilized by political extremist and racist
organizations is
a. masculinity
b. femininity
c. socialism
d. intersectionality
"Gender Norms in the TwilightSeries," Rebecca Hayes-Smith
Hayes-Smith examines the popular young adult book (and film) series about vampires
and werewolves, pointing out some major concerns with regard to the way in which
gender and race are portrayed. The main character, Bella, is portrayed as a weak,
passive woman who experiences conflict with other women and is portrayed as a
caretaker to her family. The male characters, Edward and Jacob, also stick to the
predominant male gender traits of violence, aggression, and treating women like
property; a "prize" to be won. More subtle is the portrayal of race and class: Jacob, the
werewolf, is Native American, of lower socioeconomic status, and is often insulted with
otherwise racialized insults.
A subtle message Rebecca Hayes-Smith takes from the Twilight series is that violence is
not objectionable when people__________
a. are angry with one another
b. are helping others
c. are in love
d. are defending their own honor
"Are Asian Americans Becoming "White"?" Min Zhou
Zhou discusses the way that, officially and unofficially, Asian Americans are more and
more often being combined with Whites as having similar experiences. Unofficially
they are considered the "model minority", with some achieving successes consistent
with the American Dream, and officially the fact that the two groups are combined
when it comes to equal opportunity programs. Zhou first criticizes this for the fact that
Asian American is a designation that includes people from a multitude of different
countries of origin, each having different experiences both in the past and during their
time in the United States. The "model minority" label is seen as being problematic for
reinforcing the stereotype that racism no longer exists: that any other racial or ethnic
group should be able to achieve the same. It also ignores the fact that different Asian
American groups have achieved different levels of assimilation and social class
standing, and are not a heterogeneous group that can be described with a singular label.
Zhou describes that most Asian Americans are not seeing to become "White", but see
that as the standard norm for American society, and their own identity is more
nationalistic (American) than racial. However, the perspective that Asian Americans
would be able to achieve "Whiteness" would also minimize and ignore the impact of
anti-Asian discrimination and racism that is still present in American society.
A study by David Lopez found that in Los Angeles, about ______ of second generation
Asian Americans speak only English at home?
a. 10 Percent
b. 30 Percent
c. 45 Percent
d. 75 Percent
"The Intersectional Paradigm and Alternative Visions to Stopping Domestic
Violence: What Poor women, Women of Color, and Immigrant Women Are
Teaching Us About Violence in the Family," Natalie J. Sokoloff
Sokoloff's work studies the problem of domestic violence from an intersectional
perspective. By doing this, she challenges the notion that gender inequality is the only
primary force driving the problem. The approach has two distinct objectives: giving
voices to battered women, as well as addressing socially structured inequalities that
feed into the problem. One of her major critiques is that the often-supported
"colorblind" approach to domestic violence (specifically in that it cuts through all races,
ethnicities, and socioeconomic statuses), it prevents larger social structural problems
that feed into the problem from being recognized and addressed. As an example of this,
research shows that controlling for economics, African American women are less likely
to experience domestic violence, and that neighborhood factors (less collective
efficacy) is a more significant determining factor than race is. The tendency to approach
cases of domestic violence as part of a different cultural perspective (such as honor
killings), also minimizes the perceptions of domestic violence with persons of color.
Finally, community based programs are outlined that seek to prevent these issues
through structural change are examined.
Research shows that Black women are _________ than White women to be battered
when controlling for income and marital status.
a. less
b. more
c. significantly more
d. about the same
"The Invention of Heterosexuality," Jonathan Ned Katz
The author documents the history and invention of the term heterosexuality as a means
of categorizing sexual relationships. The author emphasizes how sexuality has been
closely linked to structural power and the means of production within a society
throughout history. He argues that an ahistorical approach to studying sexuality
continues to privilege "normal" and "natural" sexual expression.
Katz refers to the time period when the heterosexual norm went almost unchallenged
as:
a. the cult of domesticity
b. heterosexual hegemony
c. hetero/homo duo
d. heterosexual mystique
"Color-Blind Privilege: The Social and Political Functions of Erasing the
Color Line in Post Race America," Charles A. Gallagher
Gallagher argues that a new form of racist thinking, an ideology called color-blind
racism, has become dominant among whites in America. Media and popular culture
have created an illusion of equality by reducing race to cultural symbols that are
marketed to everyone. Symbols of racial equality are embodied in the images of
successful personalities in politics and sports, as well as in commodities as diverse as
music, clothing, condiments, and cars. This focus on race as merely symbolic allows a
majority of whites to believe that racial harmony prevails, institutional racism has been
eliminated, and race no longer shapes life chances. This myth buttresses the deeply held
belief that America is a meritocracy and that therefore any advantages that whites have
now relative to racial minorities are earned advantages, achieved through individual
effort. White privilege is thus rendered invisible, and support for programs that address
problems caused by institutional racism is undermined.
Gallagher believes that ____ is responsible for racial inequality today:
a. cultural diversity
b. class consciousness
c. institutional racism
d. laziness on the part of individuals
"Interpreting and Experiencing Anti-Queer Violence: Race, Class and gender
Differences Among LGBT Hate Crime Victims," Doug Meyer
Doug Meyer uses an intersectional approach and a qualitative methodology to explore
how victims of violence in the LBGT community experience victimization differently
according to race, class gender and sexuality. Meyer finds that multiple intersecting
oppressed statuses make the identification of hate crime more complicated for all but
middle and upper class White gay men. Those statutes may then serve primarily the
interests of those White men, not the interests of lesbian and bisexual women, and
particularly not LGBT people of color.
White gay men almost always determined that interracial violence was based on their:
a. race
b. sexuality
c. gender
d. class
"Navigating Interracial Borders: Black-White Couples and their Social Worlds,"
Erica Chito Childs
Erica Chito Childs examines the experiences and challenges that Black/White couples
face within their families and communities. Although interracial relationships and
marriages are often viewed as a sign of improving race relations, she argues that these
relationships are often met with opposition from both White and Black communities.
She examines the discourse that families use when discussing their feelings and beliefs
about interracial relationships. She finds, for example, that White families often pose
their opposition to Black/White marriage in non-racial terms and stress that they are
"concerned" for how difficult society would make life for the child who is involved
interracially. In contrast to White families, Black families emphasize the importance of
"marrying Black" to their children and explicitly identify race as an issue. Her
conclusion is that because interracial couples exist in, what she terms, a "borderland"
between Black and White, her examination of interracial couples offers much to our
understanding contemporary race relations. The beliefs expressed by the both the Black
and White families illustrate the centrality of race in constructing families and identities
and, particularly, the social construction of race.
Unlike White communities, Black college students and Black community respondents:
a. expressed "concern" for the family member involved in an interracial relationship
b. discussed other families that they knew rather than their own views
c. explicitly identified race as an issue and stressed the importance of marrying Black
d. all of these answers are correct.
"There's No Business Like the Nail Business," Miliann Kang
Kang takes a double pronged approach to her article, examining both why the beauty
industry, specifically related to manicures and pedicures, has shifted from something
done within the home to something performed professionally. She also examines the
prevalence of Korean women within this industry. Kang claims the expansion of the
industry is the factor of these two events coming together: women looking to reinforce
their femininity as part of an overall "commercialization of intimate life" that appeal to
emotions and bodies in a form of escapism. With the increase of immigrants, largely
female and Asian, who perform the work, the prices are kept low enough and the
availability of services have done nothing but increase the popularity of this industry.
The willingness of customers to regularly invest in nail and beauty services is highest in
a. Large urban areas
b. Rural areas
c. Suburban areas
d. There is no difference by area
_______________ are the most economically disadvantaged group in all of Chicago:
a. Mexicans
b. Blacks
c. Puerto Ricans
d. Cubans
"How a Scholarship Girl Becomes a Soldier: The Militarization of Latina/o Youth
in Chicago Public Schools," Gina Perez
Gina Perez explores the complicated relationship between young Latina/o students in
Chicago and the U.S. military. Perez argues that in addition to limited economic
opportunities, gendered understandings of autonomy, family obligations, honor and
respectability influence, how young people respond to the increasingly militarized
educational context.
Between the years 2001 and 2004 the Pentagon Budget for JROTC programs was
expected to
increase by more than:
a. $110 million
b. $2 million
c. $50 million
d. $200 thousand
"Straight is to Gay as Family is to No Family," Kath Weston
This essay presents a distinct dichotomy that depicts the establishment and maintenance
of family and extended kin in the gay and straight world. Weston delineates a path of
rejection, isolation and loneliness from straight families as gay persons attempt to
establish individual identities. In addressing misperceptions surrounding gay life, this
essay also introduces alternative approaches to the establishment and cultivation of
family life.
Weston argues the characterization of lesbians and gay men as non-reproductive beings
links their supposed attacks on the family to:
a. attacks on everyday citizenry.
b. attacks on society in the broadest sense.
c. attacks on heterosexuals.
d. jealousy of heterosexuals
"The Prison and the Closet," Patricia Hill Collins
Patricia Hill Collins considers the intersecting relationship between racism and
heterosexism. She argues that the assumption that these two hegemonic ideologies
represent separate systems of oppression obscures the fact that racism and sexism rely
upon each other for meaning. Without sacrificing the acknowledgement of differences
in the way that racism and heterosexism manifest, the author shows that the two
systems converge and that both systems affect the everyday lives of all people.
Ignoring the heterosexism that underpins Black patriarchy hinders the development of:
a. conservative political campaigns
b. progressive political parties
c. a progressive Black sexual politics
d. patriarchy itself.
"Exploring the Intersections of Race, Ethnicity, and Class on Maternity Leave
Decisions: Implications for Public Policy," Tiffany Manuel and Ruth Enid
Zambrana
Manuel and Zambrana examine the accessibility of maternity leave in the United States.
They point out the fact that of most similar industrialized nations have significantly
more security regarding maternity leave, wage replacement, and even paternity leave.
Major federal legislation, including the Equal Pay Act, the Civil Rights Act, and
Pregnancy Discrimination act are outlined. Greater focus is placed on the Family
Medical Leave Act of 1993, which mandates that large employers must provide eligible
employees 12 weeks of unpaid, job protected maternity leave (or other health related
needs). Turning their focus to low-income mothers, it was found that they took shorter
periods of maternity leave than other groups. Race, ethnicity, and social class are found
to be heavily related to amount of maternity leave taken, and that flexible leave benefits
are best, as they can be better shaped to fit a heterogeneous population.
What requires that eligible employees receive up to 12 weeks of unpaid protected leave
to care for children?
a. Equal Pay Act (1963)
b. Civil Rights Act (1964)
c. Pregnancy Discrimination Act (1978)
d. Family and Medical Leave Act (1993)
"A Different Mirror," Ronald T. Takaki
Through personal reflection and historical summaries, Ronald T. Takaki explores
multicultural America. As a Japanese American, Takaki argues that the historical and
cultural influence of the Japanese, as well as other racial and ethnic groups, on
American culture is largely unrecognized. The contributions of racial and ethnic groups
must be acknowledged to fully appreciate the true essence of American identity.
Takaki illustrates how despite historical similarities, racial and ethnic groups have been
pitted against one another, and their historical presence denied. Yet, he points out, their
influences and contributions to society are evident everywhere. He argues that
recognizing the value of their experiences allows for an enlightened understanding of
our common history and the tensions and struggles evident among racial and ethnic
groups today.
According to Takaki, the encounters between Indians and Whites:
a. illustrates the pluralism evident in American society.
b. reflects the complete assimilation achieved by racial and ethnic groups in
U.S. society.
c. shaped the course of race relations in America.
d. were mostly peaceful.
"Are Emily and Greg More Employable Than Lakisha and Jamal?" Marianne
Bertrand and Sendhil Mullainathan
Recognizing that all measures of economic success show racial inequalities in the
United States labor market, these authors designed and conducted a study to determine
whether perceptions of race connected with an applicant's name might influence
whether the applicant got called for an interview. They created fictitious job applicants
and assigned names suggestive of different races to identical resumes. This article
reports their findings.
One of the factors Bertrand and Mullainathan tested for to learn its effect on callback
rates was:
a. level of education
b. state of residence
c. resume quality
d. number of previous jobs held by applicants
"Racism in Toyland," Christine Williams
Williams examines the social organization of shopping and uncovers labor, advertising
and other practices that perpetuate racial (as well as gender and class) injustice and
inequality. She identifies problems in retail policies such as selective advertising;
opposition to public bus service to malls; job segregation; and racial profiling by clerks
and security guards. Williams views the raising of awareness as a first step in creating a
better alternative.
Williams argues that racial inequality influences:
a. where we choose to shop, what we buy and how we shop
b. where we choose to shop but not what we buy
c. what we buy but not where she shop
d. who shops but not where we shop or what we buy
"White Privilege: Unpacking the Invisible Knapsack," Peggy McIntosh
Peggy McIntosh explores the invisibility of racial privilege. She argues that Whites tend
to be unaware of the privilege they have as members of the dominant group. To
illustrate this point she compares her own experiences with denied male privilege to her
own limited perception of the privilege she enjoys because she is White. In an effort to
challenge this lack of awareness, she lists forty-six examples of the invisible privilege
she experiences in her everyday life that people of color do not. She points out that
these daily benefits of being white make her life easier. For example, the ability to shop
without being followed, to count on her skin color not causing suspicion of her financial
reliability, or even the ability to find blemish cover to match her skin tone reflects her
white privilege. She argues that for Whites these occurrences are largely taken for
granted. They are expected, assumed to be the normal experiences of everyday life. For
people of color, however, they are constant reminders of the struggle involved in all
aspects of life when one's position in society is reflected as outside of the norm.
McIntosh identifies positive and negative aspects of privilege; unearned advantage and
conferred dominance. The advantage experienced by the privileged group can be
unearned, merely as a consequence of their position, or it can be created through
dominance yielded because of their position. Both aspects challenge the notion that
one's experience in society is based solely on one's merit, and recognizing this
challenges the denial surrounding systems of privilege and oppression. McIntosh
contends that once the privileged can no longer deny the benefits intrinsic to their
position, they must then decide to either destroy or maintain the system from which
they benefit.
McIntosh acknowledges that running through a matrix of White privilege were a pattern
of __________________ that were passed on to her as a White person.
a. assumptions
b. attitudes
c. behaviors
d. actions
"Closing the Wealth Gap: A Review of Racial and Ethnic Inequalities in
Homeownership," Meghan Kuebler
The American Dream of wealth has been historically closely linked to the ability to own
a home. Kuebler discusses how owning a home (and yard or associated property) has
long been the symbol of achieving the American Dream in society and as a symbol of
success. The benefits, including investment in tangible wealth, text breaks, and a chance
for assimilation for minorities have been touted for a number of years. The reality is,
however, that minorities have had fewer opportunities to become homeowners. The
effect of "White flight" on what property is owned by Blacks has a detrimental effect on
homeownership, receiving less of the benefits that Whites receive. Hispanic
homeownership differs from group to group, but is still subject to discrimination as far
as ability to receive mortgages, and thus their level of home ownership is low. Asian
Americans have higher rates of homeownership than other ethnic and racial groups
(though still less than Whites), but up to 20 percent of them reported suffering from
discrimination when attempting to purchase a home.
As of 2010, which of the following groups had the lowest level of homeownership in
the US?
a. Whites
b. Blacks
c. Hispanics
d. Asians
"Is Capitalism Gendered and Racialized?" Joan Acker
Capitalism has been dominated by white males and built by a subordinated gender and
race segregated labor force. It has been buttressed by a largely unpaid force of
caregivers who are primarily female. These gender and race divisions of labor still exist
and are global in scope. Furthermore, capitalist endeavors are gendered in that
hegemonic masculinities define dominant values in the norms of corporate conduct.
Aggressiveness, decisiveness, competition, a focus on winning and defeating the
enemy, and taking of territory from others are characteristics of:
a. successful CEOs.
b. successful capitalist organizations.
c. hegemonic masculinities.
d. all of these answers are correct.
"Must-See TV: South Asian Characterizations in American Popular Media,"
Bhoomi K. Thakore
Thankore examines the changing role South Asian and Indians have had in American
popular culture, and the rather rapid increase in TV characters of this background. The
surprise popularity of Slumdog Millionaire is cited as a possible reason for this, as well
as the ability for Indian characters to act as a token minority in place of Arab and
Muslim characters in a post-9/11 society. Along with this though has been a
racialization of South Asians and the associated stereotyping in society. Thakore
examines the evolution of Indian characters, from dangerous savages in India to cab
drivers and convenience store owners in urban areas, and increasingly as high achieving
students. The stereotype of the low-earning service employee is one not consistent with
the academic and economic achievements of Indians and South Asians, while the more
modern presence as scientists and doctors is more realistic.
According to Thakore, South Asian and Indian characters began appearing as minor or
not speaking characters in American TV and media?
a. 1960s
b. 1970s
c. 1980s
d. 1990s
"The Color of Justice," Michelle Alexander
Michelle Alexander examines the racial disparities in our criminal justice system,
finding that
"rates and patterns of drug crime do not explain" the fact that "although the majority of
illegal drug users and dealers nationwide are White, three-fourths of all people
imprisoned for drug offenses are Black or Latino." Alexander identifies two stages in a
structural process that results in the unjust disparities she finds in the system of
"racialized social control" that passes itself off as criminal justice.
What is responsible for the "prison boom" according to Alexander?
a. convictions for violent crime
b. convictions for theft
c. convictions for drug offences
d. convictions for failure to pay child support
"Label Us Angry" Jeremiah Torres
Torres is still angry, years after an incident that he describes as "the most painful and
shocking event" of his life. Growing up in Palo Alto California, he and his friend Carlos
had not experienced overt racism until they had a confrontation with a speeding driver
who cut them off as they were leaving their high school parking lot. The events that
followed " from the meanness of the people in the other car to the reactions of police
officers and the different ways in which the author and his friend handled their anger "
illustrate some dramatic consequences of racist assumptions and racist labeling.
According to the author, what made the incident at the traffic light racist?
a. the angry gestures of the white passenger
b. the fact that the author and his friends were Filipino
c. the use of mace
d. the particular labels the white men used to describe Carlos and his friend
"Color-Blind Privilege: The Social and Political Functions of Erasing the
Color Line in Post Race America," Charles A. Gallagher
Gallagher argues that a new form of racist thinking, an ideology called color-blind
racism, has become dominant among whites in America. Media and popular culture
have created an illusion of equality by reducing race to cultural symbols that are
marketed to everyone. Symbols of racial equality are embodied in the images of
successful personalities in politics and sports, as well as in commodities as diverse as
music, clothing, condiments, and cars. This focus on race as merely symbolic allows a
majority of whites to believe that racial harmony prevails, institutional racism has been
eliminated, and race no longer shapes life chances. This myth buttresses the deeply held
belief that America is a meritocracy and that therefore any advantages that whites have
now relative to racial minorities are earned advantages, achieved through individual
effort. White privilege is thus rendered invisible, and support for programs that address
problems caused by institutional racism is undermined.
National polls indicate that a majority of whites now believe that racial discrimination:
a. explains the persistence of racial inequality
b. is systematic
c. has been eliminated
d. is still a problem, but only in the south
