Schram, Introduction to Criminology 3e
SAGE Publishing, 2021
Test Bank
CHAPTER 10: SOCIAL PROCESS AND CONTROL THEORIES OF CRIME
Multiple Choice
1. ______ is considered one of the most influential criminologists of the 20th
century and introduced differential association theory.
a. Sheldon
b. Tarde
c. Shaw and McKay
d. Sutherland
2. Sutherland introduced ______ theory.
a. differential access
b. learning
c. differential association
d. trait
3. Sutherland was interested in explaining ______.
a. why the elderly were not involved in criminal activity
b. how criminal values and attitudes could be culturally transmitted from one
generation to another
c. why firearms offenses were higher in the United States compared to other
nations
d. why males committed more crimes than females
Schram, Introduction to Criminology 3e
SAGE Publishing, 2021
4. Sutherland’s theory of differential association had ______ different elements.
a. seven
b. eight
c. nine
d. four
5. In the process of classical conditioning, the organism, animal, or person is
a/an ______ actor in the process, simply receiving stimuli and responding.
a. passive
b. involved
c. active
d. dynamic
6. What critical influence did Sutherland leave out of differential association
theory?
a. family
b. media
c. friends
d. community
7. ______ is a learning model based on the association between an action and
feedback following the action.
a. Modeling
b. Classical conditioning
c. Imitation
d. Operant conditioning
Schram, Introduction to Criminology 3e
SAGE Publishing, 2021
8. Akers and Burgess integrated Sutherland’s work with contributions from the
field of ______.
a. sociology
b. psychiatry
c. social psychology
d. psychology
9. Differential associations vary in all of the following EXCEPT ______.
a. duration
b. frequency
c. priority
d. moderation
10. Studies testing differential reinforcement theory have used four groups of
variables or factors. Choose the one below that is not considered one of these
variables.
a. associations
b. modeling
c. punishments
d. definitions
Schram, Introduction to Criminology 3e
SAGE Publishing, 2021
11. The neutralizing techniques found primarily in corporate settings is ______,
which essentially is the belief that an individual or group has done so much good
that he or she is entitled to mess up by doing something illegal.
a. appeal to higher loyalties
b. defense of necessity
c. condemning the condemner
d. metaphor of the ledger
12. Neutralization theory is associated with ______ theorists.
a. Sutherland and Hirschi
b. Alex and Leonar
c. Sykes and Matza
d. Darwin and Maslow
13. The text states it is arguable that ______ may have the most empirical
validity of any contemporary (nonintegrated) model of criminal offending.
a. neutralization theory
b. differential reinforcement theory
c. power-control theory
d. containment theory
14. ______ theory emphasizes various types of social learning, specifically
classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and imitation or modeling.
a. Differential association
b. Differential reinforcement
c. Differential identification
Schram, Introduction to Criminology 3e
SAGE Publishing, 2021
d. Neutralization
15. Tarde introduced imitation theory, which incorporated three laws of imitation.
Which law below is not part of the laws of imitation?
a. the inferior is imitated by the superior
b. people imitate one another in proportion as they are in close contact
c. when two mutually exclusive methods come together, one method can be
substituted for another
d. superior is imitated by the inferior
16. Bandura demonstrated, through a series of theoretical and experimental
studies, that a significant amount of learning takes place ______.
a. absent virtually any form of conditioning or responses to a given behavior
b. with lots of conditioning or responses to a given behavior
c. due to repeated and consistent rewards
d. as the result of continuous punishments
17. All of the following are considered learning theories EXCEPT ______.
a. differential reinforcement theory
b. differential association theory
c. collective conscience theory
d. neutralization theory
Schram, Introduction to Criminology 3e
SAGE Publishing, 2021
18. ______ consist of a wide range of constraints on individual propensities to
commit deviant acts.
a. Internal controls
b. Indirect controls
c. Direct controls
d. External controls
19. Spanking is considered an example of ______.
a. positive reinforcement
b. negative punishment
c. negative reinforcement
d. positive punishment
20. The four constructs of social bonding theory is made up of all of the following
EXCEPT ______.
a. conformity
b. attachments
c. involvement
d. commitment
21. The gray area between free will and determinism is called ______.
a. soft determinism
Schram, Introduction to Criminology 3e
SAGE Publishing, 2021
b. drift
c. classical determinism
d. hard determinism
22. ______ assumes that in households where the mother and father have
relatively similar levels of power at work, mothers will be less likely to exert
control over their daughters.
a. Neutralization theory
b. Differential reinforcement theory
c. Power-control theory
d. Containment theory
23. Matza’s drift theory is highly consistent with several of the ideas presented by
control theorists, including all of the following assumptions EXCEPT ______.
a. selfish tendencies are universal
b. selfish tendencies appear at times when controls are weakest
c. selfish tendencies are inhibited by socialization and social controls
d. selfish tendencies appear only during the teenage years
24. ______ assumes that all people would naturally commit crimes if not for
restraints on the selfish tendencies that exist in every individual.
a. Neutralization theory
b. Differential reinforcement theory
c. Control theory
d. Learning theory
Schram, Introduction to Criminology 3e
SAGE Publishing, 2021
25. ______ theory takes into account associations with persons and images
presented in the media.
a. Differential association
b. Differential reinforcement
c. Differential identification
d. Containment
26. Learning theories focus on why and how individuals are socialized into
criminal activity; by contrast, control theories focus on why and how ______.
a. criminals succeed in learning difficult crime techniques
b. individuals are not socialized into conforming behavior
c. abusive parents might increase criminality
d. abusive siblings might increase criminality
27. Tabula rasa means ______.
a. blank slate
b. criminal mind
c. criminal act
d. deviant type
Schram, Introduction to Criminology 3e
SAGE Publishing, 2021
28. Which type of conditioning is concerned with how behavior is influenced by
reinforcements and punishments?
a. classic
b. operant
c. stimulus
d. control
29. Virtually all learning theories assume that our attitudes and behavioral
decisions are acquired via ______.
a. genetics before we are born
b. formal learning in school
c. observation only
d. communication after we are born
30. Select the false statement below.
a. Differential association theory is just as deterministic as theories that believe
biology is the cause of criminality.
b. Sutherland believed criminality is learned just as other things are learned.
c. Sutherland was influenced by McKay, Shaw, and Tarde.
d. Differential association theory contends that people learn about crimes more
from the media than from those close to them.
31. According to Sykes and Matza, when it comes to choosing between complete
conformity or complete nonconformity, youths ______ these two extremes.
a. make a consistent choice to one of
b. vacillate or drift between
c. completely reject both of
Schram, Introduction to Criminology 3e
SAGE Publishing, 2021
d. express they are confused by
32. Why is it called neutralization theory?
a. People justify and rationalize behavior by through “neutralizing” it, making
excuses for behavior they know is wrong.
b. People usually follow an illegal act with a virtuous act in order to “neutralize”
the effects of their crimes.
c. When people commit crimes, the negative consequences of their acts are
neutralized” by the good acts of those who never commit crimes.
d. When people commit crimes, they try to pick one that society has a “natural”
attitude about.
33. Which statement is not one of the recognized techniques of neutralization?
a. denial of responsibility
b. denial of the victim
c. assessment of gain
d. appeal to higher loyalties
34. What two techniques of neutralization are most commonly used by white
collar criminals?
a. denial of the victim and denial of responsibility
b. defense of necessity and metaphor of the ledger
c. appeal to higher loyalties and condemnation of the condemners
d. denial of responsibility and assessment of gain
Schram, Introduction to Criminology 3e
SAGE Publishing, 2021
35. Two wide criticisms of neutralization theory mentioned in the chapter are that
it has not been properly measured and ______.
a. more research is needed about whether neutralization occurs both before and
after a crime
b. existing research has only been conducted on elderly individuals
c. existing research has only been conducte on juveniles
d. no anecdotal evidence exists regarding this theory
36. Control theories assume that all people would naturally commit crimes if not
for ______.
a. a genetic predisposition to obey the law
b. restraints like social attachments and investments in society
c. illness, injury, and death
d. intellectual and psychological disabilities
37. The low self-control theory of crime, also known as the general theory of
crime, assumes that ______.
a. lack of control over behavior is inevitable, and that no amount of discipline of
good parenting can overcome this fact
b. individuals are born predisposed to self-centered activities and only effective
child rearing and socialization can overcome this fact
c. the media has created such a violent culture that only parental interferece with
media influence can cancel out this negative influence
d. most people are born with great self-control, but that a small percentage are
born with none