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b. lower-class status frustration
c. Merton’s concept of anomie and strain
d. general strain theory
38. General Strain Theory has three categories of strain: presentation of noxious
stimuli, removal of positively valued stimuli, and ______.
a. failure to achieve goals
b. breaking the law
c. anger at the world
d. drug use
39. Which type of program is NOT supported by empirical research on strain
theory?
a. educational programs
b. vocational opportunities
c. developing coping mechanism
d. strict parole conditions
40. Which statement is NOT a criticism of General Strain Theory mentioned in
the chapter?
a. More study on subjective feelings of frustration is needed.
b. There is only mixed support for the idea certain events lead to anger.
c. There is only mixed support for the idea anger leads to crime.
d. All criminologists deny its face validity.
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True/False
1. Cohen emphasized youths’ internalization of the American Dream and fair
chances for success, leading to frustration when they fail to be successful
according to this middle-class standard.
2. Reaction formation involves adopting attitudes or committing behaviors that
are the opposite of what is expected—a form of defiance and avoidance of guilt
for not living up to the assumed standards.
3. Cohen stated that he believed the tendency to reject middle-class values is the
primary cause of gangs.
4. What distinguishes Cloward and Ohlin’s theory from the previous strain
theories is that they emphasized five different types of gangs that form based on
the characteristics of the social structure in the neighborhood.
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5. Examples of criminal gangs are seen in movies depicting highly organized
neighborhoods (often consisting of primarily one ethnicity)—movies such as The
Godfather, A Bronx Tale, State of Grace, Sleepers, New Jack City, Clockers,
Goodfellas, Better Luck Tomorrow, and many others that were partially based on
real events.
6. According to Durkheim, in primitive mechanical societies virtually everyone
experiences essentially the same daily routine.
7. Conflict gangs are highly organized and turn a tremendous profit.
8. A key policy implication of strain theories is the need to develop healthy coping
mechanisms.
9. The first modern national crime statistics were published in England in the
early 1800s.
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10. According to Cohen, lower-class male youths will adopt a normative value
system that defies the very values they are expected to live up to by changing
their normative beliefs to value authority, school achievement, and respect for
authority.
11. One type of activity that has shown relatively consistent success in relieving
stress is laughter.
12. Organic societies in the Durkheimian model are those that have a high
division of labor and thus a low level of agreement about societal norms.
13. Durkheim was clear in stating that crime is not only normal but necessary in
all societies.
14. According to Cloward and Ohlin, conflict gangs are blocked not only from
legitimate opportunities but also from illegitimate opportunities.
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15. According to Merton, innovation, retreatism, and rebellion are adaptations to
strain that are the least likely to lead to criminal offending.
16. Merton’s ritualists do not seek to achieve the goals of material success.
17. Ritualists, in strain theory, buy into both the conventional means of success
and the conventional goals.
18. Using a basketball analogy to explain adaptations to strain, a retreatist
wouldn’t care about winning the game and wouldn’t want to play the game either.
19. There has been little criticism of Merton’s theories.
Schram, Introduction to Criminology 3e
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20. The age at which offenders tend to commit predatory street crimes, such as
robbery, rape, murder, and burglary, tends to peak sharply in their teenage years
to early 20s, and then drop off quickly.
21. A young man who feels he doesn’t live up to the “middle-class measuring
rod,” and then develops a system of values that is contrary to middle-class
values would fit Cohen’s Theory of Lower-Class Status Frustration.
22. Cohen’s “corner boy” best fits with Merton’s type of adaptation called
ritualism.
23. Although some studies have criticized General Strain Theory, for the most
part, studies have supported it.
Schram, Introduction to Criminology 3e
SAGE Publishing, 2021
24. In the Durkheimian model, mechanical societies have a high division of labor
and thus a low level of agreement about societal norms.
25. Empirical studies of strain theories support programs that involve education,
vocational opportunities, and developing healthy coping mechanisms.
Essay
1. Identify some ways the various models of strain theory have informed policy
making in attempts to reduce criminality.
2. Explain how Merton altered Durkheim’s version of what “anomie” means, a
definition we will explore below.
Schram, Introduction to Criminology 3e
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3. Strain theories all trace their origin to the theory of what criminologist?
4. Explain the concept of relative deprivation.
5. What is reaction formation?
6. What are the adaptations to strain Merton proposed? Explain the five (5)
different adaptations to strain and give an example of each.
Schram, Introduction to Criminology 3e
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7. Explain Durkheim’s concept of anomie and how it relates to societal changes.
Give an example of a time of anomie in the United States and how society was
affected.
8. Explain Cohen’s model of status frustration.
9. Émile Durkheim discussed the idea of collective conscience. Explain what this
is in relation to individuals in a society as well as the two (2) different types of
societies also discussed by Durkheim. How is crime affected by the strength of
the collective conscience in a community, and why?
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10. What was Auguste Comte credited with emphasizing and researching?
11. What did Andre-Michel Guerry ultimately conclude from his report examining
the first modern national crime statistics?
12. Why do criminal gangs use youth for their “dirty work”?
13. Why was Quetelet’s model controversial at the time he proposed it?
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14. What does Durkheim mean when he states that humans have no internal
mechanism to signal when their needs and desires are satiated?
15. What strengths and weaknesses do you see in social structural theories?
Provide examples.