True / False
1. Developmental theories attempt to explain the natural history of a criminal career encompassing its onset,
continuation, and termination.
a. True
b. False
2. Latent trait theories hold that human development is controlled by a “master trait” present at birth or soon after.
a. True
b. False
3. Life course theorists seek to understand why people enter a criminal way of life and, once they do, this alters the
trajectory of their criminal involvement.
a. True
b. False
4. Problem behavior syndrome portrays crime as the by–product of other social problems.
a. True
b. False
5. Loeber’s covert pathway begins with minor, underhanded behaviors such as lying and shoplifting.
a. True
b. False
6. Late bloomers, as associated with trajectory theory, combine psychopathology with risk-taking behavior and poor
social skills.
a. True
b. False
7. According to Life Course Theory, the early onset of antisocial behavior strongly predicts later and more serious
criminality.
a. True
b. False
8. Life-course persisters may be considered “typical teenagers” who get into minor scrapes, first in adolescence and,
later, in adulthood.
a. True
b. False
9. Building social capital supports conventional behavior and inhibits deviant behavior.
a. True
b. False
10. According to life course theory, criminal careers cannot be reversed even if life conditions improve.
a. True
b. False
11. According to latent trait theory, the propensity to commit crime is unstable, but the opportunity to commit crime
remains stable over time.
a. True
b. False
12. Regardless of gender or environment, those who maintain a latent trait may be predisposed to crime and are in
danger of becoming career criminals.
a. True
b. False
13. The crime and human nature model proposes that biological and psychological traits influence the crime-non-crime
choice.
a. True
b. False
14. The general theory of crime links the propensity to commit crime to low intelligence and body build.
a. True
b. False
15. Gottfredson and Hirschi trace the root cause of poor self-control to inadequate child-rearing practices.
a. True
b. False
16. The general theory of crime explains racial and gender differences.
a. True
b. False
17. A person‘s perceived level of self-control changes as the individual grows into adulthood.
a. True
b. False
18. According to trajectory theory, some people enter multiple pathways to crime simultaneously.
a. True
b. False
19. Policies based on developmental theory feature multi-systemic treatment efforts designed for older habitual
offenders.
a. True
b. False
20. Criminal late starters are more likely to be involved in violent crimes.
a. True
b. False
21. The integrative methodology in the early research of
approach.
a. James Q. Wilson and Richard Herrnstein
b. Eleanor Glueck and Sheldon Glueck
c. Rolf Loeber and Marc LeBlanc
d. Marvin Wolfgang and Terri Moffitt
formed the basis of today’s developmental
22. Public policy programs based on developmental theory
a. focus on deterrence through strict punishments.
b. include mechanisms for reintegrating offenders into society.
c. provide self-help treatments aimed at adult offenders.
d. feature multi-systemic treatments designed for at–risk youths.
23. Developmental theories attempt to provide a natural history of criminal careers by encompassing
a. its onset, continuation, and termination.
b. delinquency and criminal behaviors.
c. uni–dimensional and multidimensional treatment efforts.
d. offenders’ race/ethnicity, age, and gender.
24. Latent trait theorists believe human development is controlled by a master trait present at birth or soon after that
results in
a. low intellectual development.
b. verbal and physical aggression.
c. an increased propensity to commit crime.
d. a reduced ability to interpret social interactions.
25. How do life course theorists view criminality?
a. as an inflexible process
b. as a dynamic process
c. as an opportunity-driven process
d. as a static process
26. According to life course theories, criminal opportunity, effective guardianship, and apprehension risk are
factors that can explain the onset, continuance, and desistance from crime.
a. personal
b. social
c. cognitive
d. situational
27. Because they combine personal, social, socialization, cognitive, and situational factors, life course theories are
described as
a. multidimensional theories
b. incorporated theories
c. integrated theories
d. dynamic theories
28. Which is an inaccurate statement about problem behaviors and problem behavior syndrome?
a. All varieties of criminal behavior may be a part of a generalized problem behavior syndrome.
b. People suffering from one problem behavior condition typically exhibit many symptoms of the rest.
c. The more risk factors a person suffers, the greater the likelihood the individual will engage in antisocial
behavior.
d. Problem behavior syndrome portrays crime as the product of other social problems.
29. Using data from a longitudinal study of Pittsburgh youth, Loeber identified distinct pathways to crime. Which
pathway begins at an early age with stubborn behavior?
a. the authority conflict pathway
b. the covert pathway
c. the overt pathway
d. the late bloomer pathway
30. This type of offender is characterized by staying out of trouble during adolescence, until late in one’s teenage years,
then becoming a violent chronic offender.
a. the abstainer
b. the adolescent limited
c. the life course persister
d. the late bloomer
31. Aside from identifying several specific pathways to crime, what else did Loeber discover about criminal pathways?
a. Some pathways do not lead to a sustained deviant career.
b. Some people enter two and even three pathways simultaneously.
c. Adult crime specialization is dependent upon the pathway taken to crime.
d. Adolescents who simultaneously enter more than one pathway are the most likely to desist from crime as they
mature.
32. Why is early onset an important factor in the study of crime?
a. Because the earlier that antisocial behavior is identified, the earlier that turning points can be implemented.
b. Because latent traits may have gone unnoticed or unidentified at birth.
c. Because early onset of antisocial behavior predicts later and more serious criminality.
d. Because early onset of antisocial behavior is void of the crime-non-crime choice mechanism suggested by
Wilson and Herrnstein.
33. One of the key principles of life course theory is that
a. high verbal ability during childhood predicts persistence.
b. persistent offenders begin their offending careers in late adolescence.
c. the earlier the onset of criminality, the more specialized and violent the criminal career.
d. the seeds of a criminal career are planted early in life.
34. Life course theorists examine offending patterns and trends. Terrie Moffit describes adolescent-limited offenders as
a. angry adolescents.
b. typical teenagers.
c. classic persisters.
d. standard youth.
35. Life course theories integrate personal, social, socialization, situational and cognitive factors to explain human
behavior. Personality and intelligence are
criminality.
a. personal
b. social
c. socialization
d. cognitive
factors that can explain the onset and continuation of
36. Laub and Sampson’s research indicates that building
long–term deviance.
a. knowledge
b. social capital
c. marketable skills
d. financial capital
and strong social bonds reduces the likelihood of
37. Which of the following is NOT one of the significant life–changing events which reduces criminality, according to
Laub and Sampson?
a. buying a car
b. joining the military
c. getting married
d. getting a job
38. Laub and Sampson identify life events that enable adult offenders to desist from crime. Accordingly, they identify
transitions as short-term events embedded in
a. trajectories.
b. social capital.
c. marital relationships.
d. pathways.
39. Which of the following statements is inaccurate in terms of the empirical research supporting Laub and Sampson’s
age-graded theory?
a. Criminality appears to be dynamic and is affected by behaviors occurring over the life course.
b. People who get involved with the justice system as adolescents may find that their career paths are blocked
well into adulthood.
c. Criminal career trajectories are impossible to reverse, even if life conditions improve.
d. Accumulating social capital reduces crime rates.
40. According to latent trait theory, when does a latent trait appear?
a. at birth or soon after
b. during childhood
c. during adolescence
d. during early adulthood
41. According to Wilson and Herrnstein‘s crime and human nature view, a criminal incident occurs when an individual
chooses criminal over conventional behavior. What factor influences this choice?
a. social capital
b. a latent trait
c. low self-control
d. peer influence
42. Which of the following statements regarding gender differences and the general theory of crime is accurate?
a. The GTC predicts gender differences in self-control and crime.
b. There is little evidence that males are more impulsive than females.
c. Females are more likely to persist in crime due to low self-control.
d. Male juvenile offenders exhibit greater impulse control than female juvenile offenders until approximately
sixteen years of age when levels equalize.
43. In their general theory of crime, Gottfredson and Hirschi consider the criminal offender and the criminal act as
_______concepts.
a. separate
b. balanced
c. competing
d. opposite
44. The general theory of crime is criticized for all of the following reasons EXCEPT:
a. Impulsivity is only one personality trait correlated with crime.
b. Does not explain racial and gender differences in crime.
c. Assumes that criminal propensity does not change.
d. Overly focusing on white-collar crime.
45. According to the general theory of crime, people who are risky and want immediate gratification possess
a. high self-esteem.
b. low self-esteem.
c. high self-control.
d. low self-control.
46. Gottfredson and Hirschi trace the root cause of poor self-control to
a. lack of education.
b. inadequate child-rearing practices.
c. weak social bonds.
d. peer associations.
47. Gottfredson and Hirschi claim that the principles of self-control theory
a. predominantly explain violent crime.
b. predominantly explain property crime.
c. predominantly explain street crime.
d. can explain all varieties of criminal behavior.
48. Which of the following theories addresses the different classes and types of offenders associated with crime?
a. life course
b. propensity
c. classical
d. trajectory
49. Although criminal offenders are people predisposed to crime, they are not robots who commit crime without
restraint. According to the general theory of crime, change in the frequency of criminal activity is a function of
a. change in one‘s level of impulsivity.
b. change in one’s level of self-control.
c. change in criminal opportunity.
d. change in environmental conditions.
50. Which empirical evidence supports the general theory of crime?
a. Low self-control is significantly related to antisocial behavior and the association can be seen regardless of
culture or national setting.
b. The general theory of crime is tautological, or involves circular reasoning.
c. Regional and ecological patterns in the crime rate are associated with differential levels of self-control.
d. High moral standards can inhibit crime even among impulsive individuals.
51. According to developmental theorists, when should interventions be introduced to people at risk of committing
crimes?
a. pre-school
b. elementary grades
c. high school
d. college
52. Which concept assumes that the propensity of an individual to participate in criminal behavior is relatively stable and
unchanging over one‘s life course?
a. authority conflict
b. early onset
c. population heterogeneity
d. state dependence
53. According to the Cambridge Study in Delinquent Development which group was more likely to experience life
failure?
a. non-offenders
b. very low-rate chronic offenders
c. high adolescence peak offenders
d. high-rate chronic offenders
54. According to Loeber, which pathway begins with aggression and then leads to violence?
a. authority conflict
b. covert
c. overt
d. state dependence
55. All of the following are elements of impulsivity EXCEPT:
a. Adventuresome
b. Imprudent
c. Lacks tenacity
d. Sensitive
Mr. Smith is a middle school teacher. He teaches 8th grade history. In his class are thirteen and fourteen year olds.
The majority of his class happens to be boys. Mr. Smith is noticing changes in behavior is some of his students.
56. Mr. Smith wants to speak with George’s parents. Mr. Smith believes that George is relatively a good kid but has
begun to disrespect him and bullying other children. Which of the developmental theories proposes that George’s
potential criminal propensity can be reduced if Mr. Smith helps George’s parents understand proper parenting
techniques?
a. life course theory
b. propensity theory
c. trajectory theory
d. latent trait theory
57. One student Chris is a true problem for Mr. Smith. Mr. Smith has heard that Chris has been arrested multiple times,
beginning at ten years of age. According to life course theory, when were the seeds of a criminal career planted for
Chris?
a. infants
b. preschool
c. elementary school
d. middle school
58. Mr. Smith is very concerned for his troubled students. He was to build a positive, life-sustaining relationship with his
students. This attempt at building a positive relationship is an example of:
a. cumulative disadvantage
b. turning points
c. state dependence
d. social capital
59. Mr. Smith is concerned that one of his female students, Jenny, suffers from problem behavior syndrome (PBS).
Which of the following behaviors would not be a symptom of problem behavior syndrome?
a. ADHD
b. early pregnancy
c. educational overachievement
d. smoking
60. Mr. Smith is really concerned that Todd will drop out of school because he has no guidance at home. Mr. Smith is
also concerned Todd’s criminal record will make it impossible for Todd to find a job. Todd’s problems are an
example of:
a. cumulative disadvantage
b. latent traits
c. social capital
d. turning points
Annie is a single mother raising her son Harry on her own. Harry’s father left when Annie was pregnant. In fact,
Annie knows very little about Harry‘s father because she only knew him for a few months prior to her getting
pregnant.
61. Annie has been working a lot. She averages about 50 hours per week at work. This means she is not home when
Harry gets home from school. He is often home alone for several hours after school where Annie is not able to
monitor his behavior. Annie is concerned that Harry will not develop
exercise restraint and control over his feelings if she is not around to guide him.
a. self-control
b. self-esteem
c. self-image
d. self-sufficiency
and ultimately not be able to
62. When Harry turns thirteen, Annie recognizes that Harry is forgetful and does not really put thought behind his
actions. This characteristic is referred to as:
a. impulsive
b. population heterogeneity
c. self-control
d. state dependence
63. When Harry was twelve years old, his mother saw that he began to display signs of disobedience and acting very
stubborn. Which pathway is described by Harry’s stubborn behavior?
a. authority avoidance
b. authority conflict
c. covert
d. overt
64. Harry was expelled from school one day after he was caught bullying another classmate. Harry’s actions are
consistent with which pathway?
a. authority avoidance
b. authority conflict
c. covert
d. overt
65. Annie is regretful that she was working a lot while Harry was a child because now as an adult Harry is committing
violent acts. At the age of twenty, Harry was arrested and charged with a violent armed-robbery. According to
Loeber, which pathway did Harry most likely take to get to his violent criminal career.
a. authority avoidance
b. authority conflict
c. covert
d. overt
Essay
66. Provide a summary of developmental theory’s evolution including those theorists important in this theory’s history.
67. Identify and discuss the principles of life course theories.
68. Discuss the two distinct developmental viewpoints – life-course and latent trait theories.
69. What is problem behavior syndrome and how is it linked to criminality?
70. Identify and describe the various pathways to crime as categorized by Rolf Loeber and his associates.
71. How is age of onset related to crime and criminality?
72. Define and discuss Sampson and Laub’s turning points in a criminal career. Include the concept of social capital in
your response.
73. What are latent traits and how are latent traits linked to the onset and persistence of crime?
74. According to Wilson and Herrnstein’s crime and human nature concept, how and why does crime happen?
75. Gottfredson and Hirschi link the propensity to commit crime to two latent traits – an impulsive personality and a lack
of self-control. Explain how these traits result in crime.
76. A pattern of persistent offending across the life course is referred to as a .
77. An unchanging feature like defective intelligence may make some people crime prone is the backbone of
_____________ theory.
78. A hidden trait that guides human behavior is a trait.
79. The concept of
criminal behavior is a relatively stable trait. assumes that the propensity of an individual to participate
80. The concept of suggests that people change and develop as they mature.
81. are life events that alter the development of a criminal career.
82. Positive, life-sustaining relations with individuals and institutions are referred to as
__________________________.
83.
behaviors. refers to a person’s ability to exercise restraint and control over his feelings and
84. is lacking in thought or deliberation in decision making.
85. Kids who get into minor scrapes as youth but whose misbehavior ends when they enter adulthood are known as
__________________________.