True / False
1. Social process criminologists focus on socialization rather than the environment when explaining crime.
a. True
b. False
2. Social control theory suggests that people learn techniques and attitudes of crime from close relationships with
criminal peers.
a. True
b. False
3. The family-crime relationship is significant across racial, ethnic, and gender lines.
a. True
b. False
4. The totality of research on the effect of dropping out of high school indicates one fact – high school dropouts face a
significant chance of entering a criminal career.
a. True
b. False
5. The delinquent peer-crime relationship does not apply to popular kids because they are too busy to commit crime.
a. True
b. False
6. Religious participation seems to be a more significant inhibitor of crime than merely having religious beliefs and
values.
a. True
b. False
7. Differential association theory holds that people learn criminal attitudes and behavior during their adolescence from
close, trusted friends or relatives.
a. True
b. False
8. Sutherland‘s research on crime led him to dispute the notion that crime was a function of the inherent inadequacy of
people in the lower classes.
a. True
b. False
9. According to learning theories, even corporate executives may be exposed to pro-criminal definitions and learn to
neutralize moral constraints.
a. True
b. False
10. The stronger a person’s commitment to conventional institutions, individuals, and processes, the less likely they are to
commit crime.
a. True
b. False
11. Research affirms Hirschi’s contention that delinquents are detached loners whose bonds to friends have been
broken.
a. True
b. False
12. Research indicates that people who are labeled with one positive trait are assumed to have other positive traits.
a. True
b. False
13. A major premise of social reaction theory is that the law is differentially constructed and applied, depending on the
offenders.
a. True
b. False
14. Primary deviance involves resocialization into a deviant role and produces a deviance amplification effect.
a. True
b. False
15. The public policy effects of social process theories have been felt mainly by young offenders who are viewed as
being more savable than hardened criminals.
a. True
b. False
16. Donald Sutherland‘s version of social control is the most dominant version of control theory today.
a. True
b. False
17. Getting involved in sports and other activities helps prevent crime and delinquency.
a. True
b. False
18. Primary deviance has a significant long-term effect on the violator.
a. True
b. False
19. Diversion programs are used for both juvenile and adult offenders.
a. True
b. False
20. According to the theory of differential association, people learn to commit crime from exposure to antisocial
definitions.
a. True
b. False
Multiple Choice
21. Social process theories share one basic concept. Which is it?
a. All people, regardless of their race, class, or gender, are basically good.
b. All people, regardless of their race, class, or gender, have the potential to become delinquents or criminals.
c. Criminal behavior is genetic, regardless of race, class, or gender.
d. Lower-class people, regardless of race or gender, are more prone to commit crime.
22. Social control theory suggests that
a. crime occurs when the forces that bind people to society are weakened or broken.
b. only males have significant potential to become criminals.
c. crime is a learned behavior
d. people become criminals when significant members of society label them as such.
23. Social reaction theory suggests that
a. crime occurs when the forces that bind people to society are weakened or broken.
b. only males have significant potential to become criminals.
c. crime is a learned behavior
d. people become criminals when significant members of society label them as such.
24. refers to a style of parenting with parents who are supportive and who effectively control their children
in a non–coercive way.
a. Parent pathology
b. Low frequency parenting
c. Parental efficacy
d. Low coercion parenting
25. All of the following family factors are associated with delinquency EXCEPT
a. inconsistent discipline.
b. poor parental supervision.
c. non-coercive parenting.
d. drug abusing parents.
26. Adolescents who do not receive affection from their parents during childhood are
a. more likely to be depressed and suicidal as they mature.
b. more likely to use illicit drugs and be more aggressive as they mature.
c. more likely to suffer mental impairment as they mature.
d. more likely to engage in violent crime as they mature.
27. According to the author, which of the following is accurate regarding why troubled kids choose delinquent peers?
a. Troubled kids do so because they are not involved in after-school activities.
b. Troubled kids do so because they fail to understand truancy and delinquency laws.
c. Troubled kids do so out of necessity rather than desire.
d. Troubled kids are biologically drawn or attracted to “troublemakers.”
28. When examining the relationship between delinquent peers and fear of punishment,
outweigh the fear of punishment.
a. loyalty to
b. fear of
c. hostility from
d. skills learned from
delinquent peers may
29. Religion and belief impact criminal behavior. Even children in high crime areas are better able to resist drug use if
they
a. attend self-esteem building programs.
b. attend religious services.
c. have religious beliefs.
d. have parents with religious beliefs.
30. Which of the following is not one of the major principles of differential association?
a. Criminal behavior is learned.
b. Learning criminal behavior involves assimilating techniques.
c. Differential associations may vary in meaning, reliability, and intention.
d. A person becomes a criminal when he or she perceives more favorable than unfavorable consequences to
violating the law.
31. Edwin Sutherland’s differential association theory states that
a. criminal behavior is a product of impaired social bonds.
b. criminal behavior is learned like any other behavior.
c. criminal behavior is a function of educational inequality within the lower class.
d. criminal behavior is a function of media exposure.
32. Which of the following research findings supports the core principles of differential association theory?
a. Criminal and delinquent acts are rational and systematic.
b. Differential association accounts for spontaneous acts of violence.
c. Differential association theory involves circular reasoning.
d. Crime appears to be intergenerational.
33. The process of
values.
a. transfer
b. waft
c. drift
d. sway
refers to moving in and out of delinquency or shifting between conventional and deviant
34. Which of the following is NOT a criticism of differential association theory?
a. Differential association theory fails to account for the origin of criminal definitions.
b. Differential association theory assumes criminal and delinquent acts to be rational and systematic.
c. Differential association theory can account for isolated, psychopathic killing.
d. Differential association theory ignores spontaneous acts of violence.
35. Neutralization theory points out that
a. criminal behavior is learned in much the same way that conformity is learned.
b. even the most committed criminals and delinquents are not involved in criminality all the time.
c. criminality is a product of weak self-concept and poor self-esteem.
d. law is differentially applied, benefiting those who hold economic and social power and penalizing the
powerless.
36. Criminals sometimes neutralize wrongdoings by maintaining that the crime victim “had it coming.” This is an example
of which technique of neutralization?
a. denial of injury
b. denial of the victim
c. appeal to higher loyalties
d. denial of responsibility
37. Criminals sometimes neutralize wrongdoings by “appealing to higher loyalties.” Which of the following would be an
example of that technique?
a. Vandalizing the home of a disliked neighbor.
b. Attacking someone who is arguing with a friend.
c. Stealing from a large department store that “has plenty of money.”
d. Blaming the police for being unfair.
38. Do criminals really neutralize? What does Topalli’s research on street criminals indicate?
a. Street criminals frequently respect and admire honest, law-abiding persons.
b. Street criminals do not experience guilt that requires neutralization.
c. Street criminals experience guilt and shame that require neutralization.
d. Street criminals are often embarrassed about showing pride in their criminal accomplishments.
39. Travis Hirschi states that the social bonds a person maintains with society are divided into four main elements.
Which of the following is NOT one of these elements?
a. attachment
b. commitment
c. affection
d. involvement
40. Travis Hirschi tested the principal hypotheses of social control theory. While evidence was strong and supportive,
what is the most controversial aspect of Hirschi‘s conclusions?
a. Youths who are strongly attached to parents were less likely to commit crime.
b. Youths who were involved in conventional activities were less likely to engage in criminal behavior.
c. Youths who maintained weak, distant relationships with people tended toward delinquency.
d. Any form of social attachment is beneficial, even to deviant peers and parents.
41. Which of the following issues has been raised regarding the validity of social control theory?
a. Delinquency may lead to weakened social bonds, not vice versa.
b. Social control theory has never been empirically tested.
c. Social control theory applies primarily to lower-class youth and does not explain the criminal behavior of
middle– and upper-class youth.
d. Social control theory relies too heavily on social relationships that are difficult to measure.
42. In its purest form, theory argues that even crimes such as murder, rape, and assault are only bad or
evil because people label them as such.
a. social control
b. social reaction
c. social structure
d. social process
43. According to Lemert,
therefore, can be quickly forgotten.
a. primary deviance
b. secondary deviance
c. all criminal behavior
d. a moral lapse
involves norm violations or crimes that have little influence on the actor and,
44. The boyhood friend of a convicted murderer is interviewed by the media and reports that the offender was
withdrawn, suspicious, and negativistic as a youth. This is an example of
a. introspective reading.
b. retrospective reading.
c. enhanced reading.
d. reflective reading.
45. Which of the following statements does NOT reflect labeling theory?
a. Labeling theory identifies the role played by social agents in crime causation.
b. Labeling theory recognizes that criminality is a disease or a pathological behavior.
c. Labeling theory distinguishes between criminal acts and criminal careers.
d. Labeling theory focuses attention on the social interactions and reactions that shape individuals and their
behavior.
46. is a process whereby secondary deviance pushes offenders out of the mainstream of society and
offenders begin their escalating cycle of deviance.
a. Reactive stigmata
b. Differential morality
c. Retrospective association
d. Deviance amplification
47. A competency hearing in which a person is declared “mentally ill,” or a trial where someone is found to be a “rapist”
are forms of according to Harold Garfinkle.
a. successful demonizing rituals
b. successful shame rituals
c. successful stigmatizing ceremonies
d. successful degradation ceremonies
48. The process of becoming stigmatized by crime labels is interactive. Labeling theorists blame the establishment of
criminal careers on
a. parents.
b. crime control agencies.
c. teachers.
d. the criminals themselves.
49. When labeling alienates parents from their children and negative labels reduce children’s self image and increase
delinquency, this process is referred to as:
a. deviance amplification
b. reflected appraisal
c. retrospective reading
d. successful degradation ceremony
50. Which of the following would NOT be considered a diversion program?
a. alcohol treatment program
b. mental health program
c. prison
d. restitution
51. Which of the following elements of the social bond involves the time, energy, and effort expended in conventional
activities?
a. Attachment
b. Commitment
c. Belief
d. Involvement
52. According to the social control theory this element of the social bond insulates people from the lure of criminal
behavior because they are not sitting idle.
a. Attachment
b. Commitment
c. Belief
d. Involvement
53. According to the social control theory, kids who feel attached to their
engage in antisocial behaviors.
a. friends
b. grandparents
c. parents
d. teachers
54. Which theory explains criminal careers in terms of stigma-producing encounters?
a. cultural deviance
b. differential association
c. social control
d. social reaction (labeling) theory
, are the ones less likely to
55. What is the process whereby secondary deviance pushes offenders out of mainstream society and locks them into
an escalating cycle of deviance?
a. deviance amplification
b. differential enforcement
c. reflected appraisal
d. retrospective reading
Walter and Janet have three children. Janet has been a stay at home mother raising the children. Walter has
always worked full time and is always traveling for business. Their youngest child will start school soon. Now
all three children will be in school all day. Walter and Janet are discussing if Janet should take the full time job
she has been offered.
56. Janet is out of the home by 7:00am and she does not return until 6:00pm. She has neither the time or the
energy to be supportive of her children and will not be able to effectively control them. Ultimately this will
lead to a decrease in
a. culture conflict
b. neutralization techniques
c. parental efficacy
d. reflected appraisal
57. Their oldest child Walter Jr. will be moving to the local high school. He previously attended the school at the
family’s Catholic Church, where he attended mass weekly. What risks are there for Walter Jr. by leaving the
Catholic school?
a. Attending religious services increases one’s commission of crime.
b. Attending religious services has no impact on reducing crime.
c. Attending religious services has a minimal impact on reducing crime.
d. Attending religious services has a significant impact on reducing crime.
58. Walter and Janet’s middle child Fred is having trouble in school. He has been placed in special classes for
emotionally disturbed children because of a learning disability. Fred’s parents are concerned that others are
calling their child “emotionally disturbed” and “delinquent.” Fred begins to act up, when he hadn‘t before,
behaviors which validate which social process theory?
a. Social disorganization theory
b. Social control theory
c. Social learning theory
d. Social reaction theory
59. Susie took a classmate’s toy. When asked about it, Susie replied “she had two toys and wasn’t playing with
it.” This explanation is most closely aligned with which neutralization technique?
a. Denial of responsibility
b. Denial of injury
c. Denial of the victim
d. Condemnation of the condemner
60. Janet and Walter aren’t around much, so their children interact with their peers. If the children begin to
assume many of the behavioral patterns of their friends, this outcome would be best explained by which
theory?
a. Culture conflict theory
b. Differential association theory
c. Labeling theory
d. Self-control theory
Peter and Paul have been friends for the past ten years. They are now eighteen years old and in their senior
year at the local high school. They happen to be neighbors. They first met when Peter moved into the house
next door with his aunt after his parents were killed in an automobile accident. Paul lives with his mother.
Paul’s father left the home when Paul was three years old.
61. Paul and Peter have recently befriended several individuals who are known for using drugs and also
committing crime. Using techniques learned from these new friends, the two begin stealing cars, thus
validating which theory?
a. Social disorganization theory
b. Social control theory
c. Social learning theory
d. Social reaction theory
62. Peter and Paul are both convinced that there are too many opportunities to commit crime not to continue.
What theory best explains why Peter and Paul would continue to commit crime based on this rationale?
a. Social disorganization theory
b. Social control theory
c. Social learning theory
d. Social reaction theory
63. Peter and Paul were both taken into police custody after they were caught joy-riding in a car that had been
reported stolen. While being interrogated, Peter and Paul expressed that they did not feel what they did was
so wrong, which suggests a lack of .
a. Self–awareness
b. Self-control
c. Self–regulation
d. Self–worth
unlikely that respect for other authorities will develop.
a. Coach
b. Friend
c. Parent
d. Religious official
65. Paul was arrested and charged with burglary. He was permitted to do community service instead of being
formally tried and convicted of a felony and receiving a court‐ordered sentence. The outcome of Paul’s case is
described as:
a. Labeling
b. Profiling
c. Reflected appraisal
d. Restitution
Completion
66. The social
theory is the view that criminality is a function of people’s interactions with various
organizations, institutions, and processes in society.
67. is the process of human development and enculturation.
68. The ability of parents to be supportive of their children and effectively control them in noncoercive ways is referred
to as ______________________.
69. According to the theory of
personal groups.
criminal behavior is learned and this occurs within intimate
70.
moral and immoral. is the result of exposure to opposing norms, attitudes, and definitions of right and wrong,
71. is the movement in and out of delinquency, shifting between conventional and deviant values.
72. A strong moral sense that renders a person incapable of hurting others or violating social norms is referred to as
__________________.
73. The elements of the include commitment, attachment, involvement and belief.
74.
education. involves the time, energy, and effort expended in conventional actions such as getting an
75. To
interactions. is to apply negative labeling with enduring effects on a person’s self-image and social
Essay
76. Explain how one’s socialization contributes to delinquent and criminal behaviors.
77. Explain the influence of family relations on delinquency and crime.
78. Describe the major premises of the three branches of social process theory – social learning theory, social control
theory, and social reaction (labeling) theory.
ANSWER: Answers will vary.
79. Discuss the association between delinquent peers and crime in general and within the context of social control
theory.
80. Discuss the relationship between dropping out of school and criminal activity.
81. How do religion and belief impact criminality?
82. Discuss the major assumptions and principles of differential association theory.
ANSWER: Answers will vary.
83. Travis Hirschi links the onset of criminality to the weakening of the ties that bind people to society. Identify and
discuss the elements of the social bond and how they impede crime.
84. Discuss the key points of labeling theory and the consequences of labeling. Include in your discussion the concepts
of primary and secondary deviance.
85. Discuss how social process theories have influenced public policy. Provide examples of policies and programs based
on social process theories.