58. The pathway of crime that begins at an early age with stubborn behavior leading to deviance and then to
authority avoidance is known as:
a. the power pathway. b. the authority conflict pathway.
c. the overt pathway. d. the covert pathway.
59. Most offenders’ antisocial behavior peaks during adolescence and then diminishes as they mature until around
the age of 18. These offenders are known as:
a. adolescent–limiteds b. life course persisters
c. adolescent-diminishers d. social-persisters
60. According to research on persistence patterns, traits rather than environmental traits seem to have the
greatest influence on life course persistence.
a. social b. individual
c. economic d. family
61. Who developed the life course theory to offer separate explanations for persistent offenders and adolescent-
limited offenders?
a. Moffitt b. Sampson and Laub
c. Agnew d. Lombroso
62. Programs and policies based on developmental theory typically feature treatment efforts.
a. economic–related b. singular-focused
c. faith–based d. multisystemic
63. Developmental theories attempt to provide a more global vision of a criminal career, encompassing its onset,
persistence, and desistance.
a. True
b. False
64. The Gluecks’ research was highly praised for nearly thirty years as the study of crime and delinquency shifted
almost exclusively to social factors.
a. True
b. False
65. Social Learning theories hold that human development is controlled by a stable propensity or “master trait,”
present at birth or soon after.
a. True
b. False
66. The concept of overt stability suggests that people change and develop as they mature; life events have a
significant influence on future behavior.
a. True
b. False
67. The concept of population heterogeneity assumes that the propensity of an individual to participate in antisocial
and/or criminal behaviors is a relatively stable trait, unchanging over their life course.
a. True
b. False
68. Youths who join gangs are 30% less likely to graduate from high school and 58% less likely to earn a four–year
degree than youths of similar background who do not become gang members
a. True
b. False
69. One flaw with life course theories is that as people mature they do not take into account things that influence
behavior change as well.
a. True
b. False
70. Problem behavior syndrome portrays crime as a type of social problem rather than the product of other social
problems.
a. True
b. False
71. Criminal conduct has been found to increase the chances of premature death due to both natural and unnatural
causes, including deaths from accidents, homicide, and suicide.
a. True
b. False
72. Adolescents with a history of gang involvement are more likely to have been expelled from school, be binge
drinkers, and test positive for marijuana.
a. True
b. False
73. Life course theories are inherently integrated theories and suggest that events taking place over the life course
influence life choices.
a. True
b. False
74. The most important social control a person can establish is a successful marriage.
a. True
b. False
75. Life experiences resulting from encounters with formal social control mechanisms, such as police and other
authority figures, limit opportunities for criminal behavior. Sampson and Laub’s age–graded theory refers to such
experiences as “turning points in crime.”
a. True
b. False
76. Research indicates that criminal career trajectories can be reversed if life conditions improve and kids gain social
capital.
a. True
b. False
77. Aging out is explained by latent trait theory in that one’s propensity to commit crime remains steady over the life
course. Only the opportunity to commit crime fluctuates over time.
a. True
b. False
78. Latent trait theories hold that some underlying condition present at birth or soon after controls behavior.
a. True
b. False
79. Agnew’s general theory of crime and delinquency indicates that crime and social relations are reciprocal. The
way an individual reacts to constraints and motivations is shaped by five key elements of human development,
called life domains.
a. True
b. False
80. The association between self–control, poor impulse control, and crime applies more accurately to juvenile crime
as motivations for adult crime differ. This helps to explain the aging out process.
a. True
b. False
81. Gottfredson and Hirschi suggest that low self–control is a function of the environment.
a. True
b. False
82. Adolescent-limiteds begin offending at a very young age. Even before delinquent activities begin, they typically
have serious behavioral problems.
a. True
b. False
83. The covert pathway involves aggressive acts that escalate from annoying others and bullying, to physical fighting,
and later to violence.
a. True
b. False
84. Adolescent–limiteds may be considered “typical teens” who get into minor scrapes and engage in what might be
considered rebellious teenage behavior with friends. As they reach their mid–teens, adolescent–limited
delinquents begin to mimic the antisocial behavior of more troubled teens, only to reduce the frequency of their
offending as they mature (until the age of 18).
a. True
b. False
85. Policy–based initiatives based on premises of developmental theory typically feature multisystemic treatment
efforts.
a. True
b. False
86. Fast Track is designed to prevent serious antisocial behavior and related adolescent problems in high–risk
children entering high school.
a. True
b. False
87. Over time, aggressive and disruptive children are rejected by families and peers and tend to receive less support
from teachers.
a. True
b. False
88. Research evaluations indicate that the most promising multicomponent crime and substance–abuse prevention
programs for youths, especially those at high risk, are aimed at improving their developmental skills.
a. True
b. False
89. Children of high-risk families usually enter the education process poorly prepared for its social, emotional, and
cognitive demands
a. True
b. False
90. Discuss the history of development theory.
91. Explain and discuss the general principles of the life course theory.
92. Explain latent traits. What is an example of a latent trait?
93. Discuss the factors that comprise problem behavior syndrome (PBS) and the association between PBS and
crime.
94. Explain why age of onset is such an important factor in predicting future criminal involvement.
95. How can the process of aging out be explained?
96. According to Gottfredson and Hirschi’s general theory of crime, explain how impulsivity, poor self–control, and
crime are associated.
97. A number of criticisms of the General Theory of crime remain unanswered. Identify and discuss the implications
of these unanswered criticisms.
98. What are the three pathways to crime identified by Loeber? Explain each of them.
99. Discuss the policy–based initiatives that have been developed using the premises of developmental theory. What
elements or aspects of developmental theory do these initiatives address?
100. Explain the difference between “adolescentlimited” and “life course–persistent” offenders. What are the
differences between the offense patterns for two pathway groups?