Chapter 8: Complex Cognitive Processes

CHAPTER NINE

KNOWLEDGE CONSTRUCTION IN SOCIAL CONTEXTS

The Social World

* 1. Researchers have found that being absent from school not only has a negative impact on the students who

are absent, but being absent also has a negative impact on the students’ classmates. Of the following—

d. The absences have a negative impact on the classroom climate.

* 2. With respect to social relationships and influences, which of the following statements best describes

people?

a. People, in general, tend to be solitary creatures and interact with others primarily as a means of

survival.

b. People, in general, tend to be social animals who enjoy interacting with, and being in the company

of, others.

c. Low income people tend to be social, whereas wealthier people tend to prefer being alone unless

their business contacts require interaction with others.

to become innately social beings.

b. People are not innately social beings, but they develop social characteristics if their parents

encourage social connection and provide social experiences.

c. People who are born with extraverted personality traits need social connections, but people who are

born with introverted personalities do not need social connection.

d. People in societies that have considerable social mobility become socially oriented beings, but

people who live in societies with strong social stratification become more nearly solitary individuals.

* 4. Of the following, which is the most valid conclusion about the benefits, or non-benefits, of social

connection for people’s physical health?

d. Social connections are highly beneficial for both emotional and physical heath of people in general.

Chapter 8: Complex Cognitive Processes

* 5. The neocortex is the part of the brain responsible for higher level functioning—such as sensory perception,

spatial reasoning, conscious thought, and—in humans—language. Which of the following is the most valid

conclusion about the influence of social connection on the neocortex?

a. The complexity of social relationships has contributed to language development but has limited

impact on individuals beyond the use of language.

b. The complexity of social relationships has had significant influence on personality development, but

has only had limited influence on the neocortex.

c. The complexity of social relationships contributed to a rapid increase in neural connectivity in the

conclusion about this increased social connection?

a. The need for social connection appears to be “hard wired” into all of us, but the influence of social

media on meeting this need is generally negative.

b. The influence of social media is generally positive, and advanced social development is the most

widely found outcome.

c. The influence of social media is positive at a personal level, such as friends staying connected on

Facebook, but it’s negative at a broader level, such as the chaos that now exists in the Middle East.

d. The influence of increased social connection is mixed. It ranges from the positive benefits of staying

connected to friends in distant places to the negative outcomes of jealousy and even marital

problems.

a. Karen’s emotional outlook will become more positive as a result of Jenna’s influence.

b. As a result of Jenna’s influence Karen will strive to behave in more positive ways, but her emotional

outlook will be largely unaffected.

c. Recognizing that Jenna is “upbeat” and she isn’t, Karen is likely to become somewhat irritated with

Jenna and will develop a more negative emotional outlook as a result of her social connections with

Jenna.

d. People’s emotions are largely out of their conscious control, so Jenna’s emotional outlook won’t

influence Karen’s emotions one way or the other.

Essay Items

Knowledge Construction

* 10. With respect to the idea that people construct knowledge, which of the following is the most accurate

statement?

a. People construct knowledge because they have been reinforced for demonstrating the knowledge

they construct.

b. People construct knowledge because they observe others construct knowledge that is similar.

c. People construct knowledge to be consistent with information they read or hear.

d. People construct knowledge in an attempt to make sense of their experiences.

Chapter 8: Complex Cognitive Processes

Items 11 and 12 are related.

she carefully demonstrates the process of finding a lowest common denominator and then adding the

fractions, such as in the following example:

(3) 1 + (4) 2 = 11

(3) 4 (4) 3 12

a. Emma constructed this answer, because she had been reinforced in the past for constructing similar

answers.

b. Emma constructed this answer because she had seen similar answers modeled for her by her peers.

c. Emma constructed this answer because it made more sense to her than did 5/6—the correct answer.

d. Emma constructed this answer because adding the numerators and then the denominators was

simpler than following the procedure for adding fractions with unlike denominators.

process of adding fractions with unlike denominators and was then able to solve problems on her own. Of

the following, how would a cognitive constructivist interpret Emma’s development?

answer correctly.

d. Ava developed a community of learners in her classroom, and the influence of the learning

community helped Emma learn the procedure for adding fractions with unlike denominators.

* 13. Which of the following best describes the difference between cognitive constructivism and social

constructivism?

a. Cognitive constructivism is based on cognitive learning theory, such as information processing,

whereas social constructivism is based on social cognitive theory.

b. Cognitive constructivism emphasizes construction of understanding based on discussion that

reinforces thinking, whereas social constructivism emphasizes discussion without the use of

Her mother had always said to her when she had an accident, “Oh, you must be tired.” Of the following,

which process of knowledge construction does this scenario best illustrate?

a. Learners construct understanding that makes sense to them.

b. Learners construct understanding by working on authentic tasks.

c. Learners construct new understanding based on their existing understanding.

d. Learners construct understanding more effectively if they are involved in social interactions.

Chapter 8: Complex Cognitive Processes

forms and draw generalizations from their explorations. Students sat quietly at their desks examining the

different plastic shapes, comparing them, measuring their lengths and angles, computing perimeters and

surface areas, and recording their observations.

As the students work and Ms. Fodea circulates among them, from a cognitive constructivist

perspective, which of the following should she most strongly emphasize?

a. Make sure that students know the names of the shapes and the formulas for finding them.

b. Encourage the students to make precise measurements of each shape.

perspective, which of the following is most important in the learning activity?

a. Encourage students to all use the same procedure in solving problems.

b. Encourage students to memorize formulas as they use them.

c. Encourage students to question each other about procedures and findings.

d. Encourage students to wait for teacher feedback before they proceed with their discussion.

* 17. Which of the following is a characteristic of a learning community?

a. Learners seek as much knowledge as they can from their teachers.

b. Teachers provide the content guidelines, present information, and reinforce student learning.

c. Students work independently to construct their own individual knowledge.

d. Bronfenbrenner

* 19. Which theorist is most closely associated with social constructivism?

a. Skinner

b. Piaget

c. Vygotsky

d. Bandura

* 20. Social interaction is reported to assist learners in many ways. Which of the following is an essential

content learning benefit consistent with social constructivist views of learning?

typically include?

a. Increasing complexity

b. Modeling

c. Direct instruction

d. Scaffolding

Chapter 8: Complex Cognitive Processes

* 22. A view of learning suggesting that learning is social in nature and cannot be separated from the context in

which it occurs is defined as:

a. cognitive constructivism.

b. situated cognition.

c. cognitive apprenticeship.

d. community of learners.

Use the following information for items 23 and 24.

“Yes you can. You’re just exerting a force. . . . Now I’m doing work,” Tahlia counters as she slowly lifts the

bottle from the table over her head. “We have to be able to describe the difference between simply holding the bottle

and moving the bottle.”

“So, I can do no work and still get tired?” Justin nods uneasily.

“Yes,” Tahlia smiles. “We can get tired by exerting a force.”

perspective?

a. Justin didn’t understand the difference between the concepts force and work, and his understanding

developed because he imitated Tahlia’s thinking.

perspective?

a. Justin didn’t understand the difference between the concepts force and work and his understanding

developed because he imitated Tahlia’s thinking.

b. Justin’s equilibrium with respect to the concepts force and work was disrupted, and he—

individually—re-established it by changing his thinking.

c. Justin’s equilibrium with respect to the concepts force and work was disrupted, and he re-established

it as a direct result of his conversation with Tahlia.

d. Justin didn’t understand the difference between the concepts force and work, and his understanding

into their village. Of the following, which theory would provide the best explanation for the Eskimo

children’s choice?

a. Social cognitive theory

b. Sociocultural learning theory

c. Situated cognition

d. Cognitive load theory

Chapter 8: Complex Cognitive Processes

Items 26-28 are related.

each other learn.” During a math lesson, she presents the problem ,“One shirt that sells for $40.00 is marked

30% off, and another that sells for $36.00 is marked 20% off. Which shirt is now more expensive?” She has

the students turn to a partner and discuss a proposed solution to the problem for one minute, and then has

individuals suggest solutions, emphasizing that they should explain their thinking in the process. Which of

the following is Judy most strongly promoting in her classroom?

for $36.00 is marked 20% off. Which shirt is now more expensive?” Judy comments to herself, “The only

way kids are going to get to be good problem solvers is if they get lots of practice in solving real-world

problems like this one.” Of the following, Judy’s belief in the need to solve real-world problems most

nearly applies ideas related to:

a. sociocultural learning theory.

b. a community of learners.

c. cognitive apprenticeships.

d. situated cognition.

c. Cognitive constructivism

d. Situated cognition

* 29. “Learning as it exists in real-world settings and how learning may be facilitated both with and without

technology” best describes which of the following?

a. Cognitive constructivism

b. Situated cognition

c. Appropriated understanding

d. The learning sciences

something heavy than if they’re walking unencumbered. Of the following, phenomena such as this research

result best illustrate which of the following?

a. Cognitive constructivism

b. Perceived cognition

c. Embodied cognition

d. Social cognition

Chapter 8: Complex Cognitive Processes

* 32. Of the following, which statement most nearly captures the primary emphasis of the learning sciences?

a. Learning should be practiced to automaticity.

b. Learning should be applied to real-world settings whenever possible.

c. Learning should be thoroughly and frequently assessed, and learners should be given informative

feedback.

d. Learning should be positively reinforced with rewards that learners view as desirable.

Essay Items

* 35. Explain how cognitive apprenticeships are both similar to, and different from, traditional apprenticeships.

Include the content under study by the learners, characteristics of the expert and of the apprentice, and

discuss how one of the components of cognitive apprenticeships could be demonstrated in the example.

* 37. Describe four conclusions that learning scientists have made about learning and teaching, and give an

example of each.

b. Knowledge construction emphasizes application in the real world, and misconceptions exist in the

real world.

c. Knowledge construction includes both an individual (cognitive constructivism) and social (social

constructivism) component.

d. Knowledge construction is the only way we can explain why people create and retain

misconceptions.

a. People construct misconceptions because they see the misconceptions modeled for them.

b. People construct misconceptions because they have been reinforced for believing the misconceptions

commonly accepted explanations. In these cases they have constructed:

a. an authentic task.

b. a situated idea.

c. a socially constructed idea.

d. a misconception.

* 41. Of the following, which is the best description of a misconception?

a. An idea that makes sense to an individual but is inconsistent with evidence or commonly accepted

explanations

b. An idea that is important in one culture but is not important in another culture

Chapter 8: Complex Cognitive Processes

* 42. Which of the following is the best example of a misconception about teaching and learning?

a. Regardless of what teachers tell students, the students are going to create ideas that make sense to

them.

b. The best way to help learners understand an idea is to carefully explain the idea to them.

c. Teachers sometimes inadvertently reinforce students for undesirable behaviors.

d. Students are likely to imitate behaviors they see displayed by others.

* 43. Which of the following is the most likely reason that misconceptions exist?

following, which principle best explains why people construct misconceptions?

a. Learners construct understanding that makes sense to them.

b. Social interaction facilitates learning.

c. Meaningful learning occurs within real-world tasks.

d. Learning requires practice and feedback.

Mrs. Alvaro, even though the opposite is true. When asked why they think so, the children point out that

Mrs. Reynolds is taller. Of the following, which factor that contributes to misconceptions is most likely the

cause of the children’s misconception in this example?

a. Schools often teach misconceptions as part of the curriculum in the early grades.

b. Teachers often hold their own misconceptions about content and share that knowledge with learners.

c. Misconceptions make sense to the individual, and changing the misconception is disequilibrating.

d. Parents often undermine information schools teach with their own misconceptions.

and get five heads in a row, you then have a greater than 50% chance to get a tail on the next flip of the

coin. The best way to modify this misconception is to:

a. provide Karen with more instruction about the laws of probability.

b. tell Karen that there is an independent chance to get a head or a tail each flip.

misconception?

a. Explain that the numbers are in the denominator, and when numbers are in denominators, larger

numbers represent smaller quantities.

b. Ask her to provide as complete an explanation as possible for why she thinks 1/4 is a larger quantity

than 1/3.

c. Write 1/3 and 1/4 on the board, and explain that the 1/3 means the quantity is one third of a larger

quantity and the 1/4 is one fourth of a larger quantity, so the one fourth must be smaller.

d. Fold a piece of paper into fourths and another identical piece of paper into thirds, and show her that

the 1/3 is larger than the 1/4.

Chapter 8: Complex Cognitive Processes

Essay Items

* 51. Identify three factors that contribute to people’s construction of misconceptions, and provide an example of

each.

Educational Psychology and Teaching: Guiding Your Students’ Knowledge Constructions

* 52. Which of the following best describes how teachers’ roles will change when basing instruction on

knowledge construction, social influences on learning, and the learning sciences?

a. Teachers will need to provide lectures with clearer language and more precise descriptions of

content than they would if using traditional instruction.

b. Teachers will need to use more positive reinforcement of students and less negative reinforcement of

influences on learning and knowledge construction compared to teacher-centered learning activities, such

as lecture?

a. Teachers’ roles will change from presenting and explaining information to guiding student

understanding.

b. Teachers’ roles will become less important in instruction based on social influences on learning and

knowledge construction, since instruction based on these principles requires that students take more

responsibility for their own learning.

c. Teachers’ roles in planning will be more complex for instruction based on social influences on

learning and knowledge construction, because teachers will need to plan for social interaction and

knowledge construction?

1. Provide students with experiences that promote deep understanding.

2. Consistently reinforce appropriate behaviors.

3. Connect content to the real world.

4. Make interaction an integral part of instruction.

5. Teach for conceptual change.

6. Promote learning with assessment.

a. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 b. 1, 3, 4, 5, 6 c. 1, 3, 5, 6 d. 1, 3, 5

Chapter 8: Complex Cognitive Processes

Use the following information for items 85 and 86.

Four teachers are teaching the concepts of adjective and adverb phrases to their language arts students.

Mrs. Mariadaga presents a two-paragraph passage that contains three underlined adjective phrases and three

italicized adverb phrases. The class discusses the common features of the phrases and what they modify and

describes adjective and adverb phrases. The students then write a paragraph containing at least one adjective and one

adverb phrase.

the word that each modifies and identify it as a noun or a verb. He then asks them what the phrases that modify

nouns must be, and when no one answers he asks them what modifies nouns. They respond, “Adjectives,” and he

points out that these are adjective phrases. He does the same thing with adverb phrases, and he then has them work

several exercises identifying the word the phrases modify in each case.

Mrs. Evans presents a passage in which several examples of adjective and adverb phrases are embedded. She

asks the students to describe the passages, and after they have made several observations, she underlines the

adjective phrases, pointing out that they modify a noun in each case. She circles the noun they modify to be sure that

the students focus on the relationship between the noun and the phrase. She then repeats the process with the adverb

phrases.

influences on learning and the process of knowledge construction is:

a. Mrs. Mariadaga.

b. Mr. Bush.

c. Mr. Moy.

d. Mrs. Evans.

cold-blooded animals with an exoskeleton, three body parts, and jointed legs.” She then shows students

instead of having the students find the examples for themselves.

c. It is inconsistent with the suggestions for classroom practice, since understanding the concept

arthropod isn’t a real–world task and therefore shouldn’t be taught.

d. It is inconsistent with the suggestions for classroom practice, since she merely told the students that

the examples were arthropods, and there didn’t appear to be any discussion in the lesson.

Chapter 8: Complex Cognitive Processes

Use the following information for items 88 and 89.

Jaclyn Lincoln, a fourth-grade teacher, wants her students to identify the correct verb in sentences such as

“Andrea and Jose (is, are) the fastest runners on the girls’ and boys’ track teams.” She has the students complete a

series of exercises in which they have to identify the correct verb.

Justin Boyd, a math teacher, wants his students to be able to simplify arithmetic expressions and has his

students simplify a series of expression such as 3 + 5(8 -2) – 7.

Richard Dodd, a social studies teacher, wants his students to understand how geography, economy, and

Providing students with experiences that promote deep understanding is one of the suggestions for classroom

practice based on social influences on learning and the process of knowledge construction.

a. Jaclyn.

b. Justin.

c. Richard.

d. Lisa.

newspapers, each advertising the same products. Students then determined the cost per ounce for products

such as orange juice and canned vegetables. After the students completed their calculations, Katie led a

whole-class discussion in which the students explained their thinking and decided which products actually

were the least expensive per ounce. During the discussion Katie periodically smiled and made comments,

such as “Good analysis,” when students demonstrated a clear understanding of the topic. Based on the

suggestions for classroom practice based on social influences on learning and the process of knowledge

construction, which of the following descriptions is the best assessment of Katie’s lesson?

a. It was ineffective, because Katie gave the students the newspaper ads instead of having the students

find the ads themselves.

b. It was ineffective, because Katie should have had the students complete the activity in small groups

a. Teacher observations of group work

b. A graded social studies homework assignment

c. An oral presentation describing a student’s independent study project

d. A multiple-choice final given to all students

Chapter 8: Complex Cognitive Processes

Use the following information for items 92–95.

Monica, age three, doesn’t touch plants because her mother, Teresa, in an effort to prevent her from pulling the

leaves off the plants in the house warns her not to touch the plants. Teresa also touches a plant and says, “Ouch,

hot!” When Monica tentatively moves to touch a plant, Teresa taps Monica’s fingers and says, “No, hot.”

The next day Monica walks by a plant, points, and says, “Hot,” and Teresa smiles at her and says, “Yes, hot.”

Monica also says to Teresa one day, “Girls wear glasses but boys don’t.”

“That’s an interesting idea,” Teresa smiles. “Why do you think that?”

“Is she wearing glasses?”

“No.”

Monica then decides that both girls and boys wear glasses, but she also decides that girls have long hair and

boys have short hair after looking at the pictures.

Teresa smiles to herself and decides to pursue the idea of hair length at a different time.

influences on learning and the process of knowledge construction?

a. Teresa’s warning Monica not to touch the plants.

b. Teresa’s touching the plant and saying, “Ouch, hot!”

a. Warning her not to touch plants.

b. Touching the plant and saying, “Ouch, hot!”

c. Teresa’s tapping Monica’s fingers when Monica moved to touch the plant.

d. Smiling at Monica and saying, “Yes, hot.”

** 94. Using the suggestions for classroom practice as a basis, how effective was Teresa’s attempt to prevent

Monica from touching the plant by making her believe the plant was hot?

a. It was effective because it helped Teresa reach her goal (preventing Monica from touching the

plant).

b. It was ineffective because plants, in general, are not hot, so Monica’s learning wasn’t connected to

understand that both men and women wear glasses?

a. It was effective because Teresa provided Monica with examples, and Teresa and Monica interacted.

b. It was ineffective because Teresa should have reinforced Monica for saying that the girl in the

picture wasn’t wearing glasses.

c. It was effective because Teresa modeled an understanding of some men wearing glasses and some

women not wearing glasses.

d. It was ineffective because Teresa didn’t provide Monica live examples of men and women wearing

glasses; her examples only came from written materials.

Chapter 8: Complex Cognitive Processes

Essay Items

* 96. Explain how your role as a teacher will change when basing instruction on social influences on learning

and the process of knowledge construction, compared to traditional instruction, such as lecture.

* 97. Describe the suggestions for classroom practice when basing instruction on social influences on learning

and the process of knowledge construction in classrooms, and provide an example of each.

acceleration by pulling a small cart across the front of the classroom using a spring scale that exerts a

constant force. She also holds a tennis ball above her head and drops it and then shows a computer

simulation that illustrates the acceleration of the dropped ball in slow motion. Jennifer explains that as the

distances between the images of the ball get greater and greater, the ball is accelerating.

Assess Jennifer’s lesson using the suggestions for classroom practice based on social influences on

learning and the process of knowledge construction as the basis for your assessment.

Chapter 8: Complex Cognitive Processes

CHAPTER NINE ANSWERS

The Social World

Chapter 8: Complex Cognitive Processes

When Learners Construct Invalid Knowledge: Misconceptions and Conceptual Change

Chapter 8: Complex Cognitive Processes

Educational Psychology and Teaching: Guiding Your Students’ Knowledge Constructions

Chapter 8: Complex Cognitive Processes