Chapter 7: Cognitive Views of Learning
CHAPTER EIGHT
COMPLEX COGNITIVE PROCESSES
Concept Learning
* 1. A mental structure that categorizes a set of objects, events, or ideas is:
a. a concept.
b. a principle.
c. a theory.
d. a fact.
* 2. Another name for characteristics of a concept is:
a. attributes.
b. prototypes.
c. exemplars.
d. nonexamples.
* 3. The rule–driven theory of learning concepts places emphasis on understanding a concept’s:
a. characteristics.
b. prototypes.
c. exemplars.
d. rules.
** 4. Of the following, the most important characteristic of the concept cup is:
a. blue
b. handle
c. holds liquid
d. ceramic
** 5. Upon seeing an elderly man with white hair, a beard, and a bit of a belly, a toddler shouts, “Look Mama,
SANTA!” She identified the white hair, beard, and belly as:
a. prototypes.
b. exemplars.
c. characteristics.
d. rules.
* 6. Early concept learning research found that learners quickly identify the essential characteristics of a
concept and classify examples accordingly. This research finding most closely relates to which of the
following?
a. Behaviorist theories of concept learning
b. Social cognitive theories of concept learning
c. Exemplar theories of concept learning
d. Rule-driven theories of concept learning
* 7. The most highly typical instances or illustrations of concepts are best described as:
a. attributes.
b. exemplars.
c. features.
d. characteristics.
Chapter 7: Cognitive Views of Learning
** 8. Having grown up in southern Florida, my friend Avery was stunned by how many trees there are in central
Pennsylvania. In his mind, he equated tree with Palm trees and Mangroves. For him, Palm trees and
Mangroves are best described as:
a. elements.
b. exemplars.
c. characteristics.
d. attributes.
** 9. The view that people learn concepts by constructing the best representations of a category, such as
constructing the best representations of the concept reptile, most closely relates to which of the following?
a. Social cognitive theories of concept learning
b. Exemplar theories of concept learning
c. Information processing theories of concept learning
d. Rule-driven theories of concept learning
** 10. Exemplar theories of concept learning are likely to be most effective for explaining how students learn
which of the following concepts?
a. Herbivore
b. Socialist
c. Rectangle
d. Direct object
** 11. Antonio’s understanding of the concept canine is represented by his images of a dog, wolf, and coyote,
which he has stored in his memory. His understanding of the concept canine is best explained by:
a. rule-driven theories of concept learning.
b. prototype theories of concept learning.
c. exemplar theories of concept learning.
d. social cognitive theories of concept learning.
* 12. When teaching a concept, teachers should present “nonexamples” in order to help students avoid:
a. irrelevant attributes.
b. negative instances.
c. overgeneralization.
d. undergeneralization.
* 13. We know that using “good” examples is critical in concept learning. Which of the following is the best
description of what makes a “good example” a “good one”?
a. The examples are in pictures rather than words.
b. The examples are something the students have had experience with.
c. The characteristics of the concept are observable in the example.
d. The examples are something that arouses emotion.
* 14. According to your text, which of the following statements is most consistent with the effective teaching of
concepts?
a. Direct instruction of a concept’s characteristics is the most critical component of teaching concepts.
b. Providing learners a prototype of a concept will best allow them to transfer to new instances.
c. Presenting examples as well as nonexamples of concepts best facilitates transfer to new instances.
d. Allowing learners to generate their own understanding of the characteristics of a concept will best
facilitate transfer.
Chapter 7: Cognitive Views of Learning
** 15. Mrs. Evans is teaching her students about gerunds and participles and has presented a series of examples of
each. She then gives them exercises where they identify the underlined word as a gerund or participle in
sentences such as the following:
Swimming is a very good form of exercises.
Look at the swimming girl.
For successful students, the complex cognitive process the students are involved in is best described as:
a. concept learning.
b. problem solving.
c. metacognition.
d. strategic learning.
Use the following information for items 16–21.
Four teachers are teaching the concept adjective to their students.
Mrs. Vargas writes the words big, small, pretty, and happy on the board, and she then says, “All these words
describe, or modify, nouns, so we call them, ‘adjectives.’” She then has the students offer some additional examples
of words they believe are adjectives.
Mr. Jordan has the students offer examples of words they believe are adjectives, and makes comments, such as
“Yes, good example,” when students offers a word, such as large, and he then follows up by saying, “Now use the
word in a sentence.” He provides corrective feedback when the students offer an example of any other part of
speech.
Mrs. King gives the students the definition, “Adjectives are parts of speech used to describe, modify, or limit
nouns,” and then says, “For instance, in the sentence, ‘Alfred took the sharp scissors up to the teacher,’ the word
sharp tells us about, or describes, scissors.” She then gives the students some additional words, such as small, new,
high, and openly, having them classify small, new, and high as adjectives and openly as an adverb.
Mr. Lanier, presents the students with a short passage:
Joe was working on a tough experiment. As he worked, his lab partner, Karen, designed a new process to use
running water to try to carefully solve some of their worst problems. Her strategy was very effective, and they
were both excited about the results.
Mr. Lanier has the students look at the words tough, lab, new, running, worst, and effective, and with his
guidance and discussion, they conclude that they all modify nouns.
** 16. Which of the following is a characteristic of the concept adjective?
a. Part of speech
b. Sharp scissors
c. Incredibly
d. Modify nouns
** 17. Based on the most prominent theories of concept learning, which of the following is the best explanation
for the way learners are most likely to learn the concept adjective?
a. They construct the concept based on exemplars of adjectives, such as the word beautiful.
b. They form the concept adjective based on being reinforced for correctly identifying examples of
adjectives.
c. They construct the concept based on the well-defined rule for classifying adjectives.
d. They identify examples based on imitating their teachers as the teachers model classifying adjectives
in sample sentences.
** 18. Based on the guidelines for applying theories of concept learning with students, the teacher who most
effectively taught the concept was:
a. Mrs. Vargas.
b. Mr. Jordan.
c. Mrs. King.
d. Mr. Lanier.
Chapter 7: Cognitive Views of Learning
** 19. Based on the guidelines for applying theories of concept learning with students, the teacher who least
effectively taught the concept was:
a. Mrs. Vargas.
b. Mr. Jordan.
c. Mrs. King.
d. Mr. Lanier.
** 20. Of the following, to understand the concept adjective most effectively, which would be the most important
nonexample?
a. Designed
b. Experiment
c. Carefully
d. Karen
** 21. Look at the examples Mr. Lanier used to teach the concept. Of the following, which was most important for
providing an adequate variety of examples?
a. Tough
b. New
c. Worst
d. Effective
Use the following information for items 22 and 23.
Mr. Andriesse has taught his fifth graders about the concepts metaphor and simile. He gave them several examples
of each, and they also formed a definition of each. He then supplied the term metaphor and linked it to its definition
and then introduced the term simile and linked it to its definition.
** 22. Later (the next day), Mr. Andriesse’s students could identify other examples of similes and metaphors on a
worksheet (the same worksheet). This ability most closely relates to:
a. learning facts.
b. learning concepts.
c. learning principles.
d. learning theories.
** 23. Mr. Andriesse chose to teach the concepts metaphor and simile together. Based on research examining
effective ways of teaching concepts, which of the following is the most likely reason that he would choose
to teach the concepts together?
a. Since simile and metaphor are closely related, examples of one could serve as nonexamples for the
other.
b. Teaching the concepts together would provide less for Mr. Andriesse to remember, so teaching them
together would be less likely to overload his working memory.
c. Teaching the concepts together would help him capitalize on the process of generalization;
reinforcing the students for correctly identifying similes would also reinforce them for correctly
identifying metaphors.
d. Teaching the concepts together would make it more efficient for Mr. Andriesse to model correct
classifications of the concepts.
** 24. In teaching the concept culture, which of the following would be the best way to increase conceptual
understanding?
a. Have the students read about the topic of culture.
b. Schedule a video that talks about a different culture.
c. Invite guest speakers to come to discuss their attitudes toward different cultural groups.
d. Have students provide their own unique examples of cultures.
Chapter 7: Cognitive Views of Learning
** 25. You are teaching the concept living thing to your first graders and have presented the students with the
following examples: themselves, a cat, a dog, a lizard, a fish, and a bird. Of the following, the most
important example to show them in addition would be:
a. one of their grandparents.
b. a snake.
c. a whale.
d. a tree.
Items 26-29 are related.
** 26. You want to teach your students the concept work. You state, “The work you do on an object is the
combination of the force you exert on the object combined with the object’s movement.” You continue by
saying, “Force, work, and pressure are all related to each other, but they aren’t identical,” and you then
explain the differences among them. Which of the following guidelines for applying theories of concept
learning with your students are you best illustrating with your efforts?
a. Promote meaningful learning by defining the concept and linking it to related concepts.
b. Provide a variety of examples and nonexamples of the concept.
c. Sequence the examples beginning with the most typical and ending with those least familiar.
d. Present the examples in a real-world context.
** 27. You want to teach your students the concept work and that work is the combination of force and movement.
You have the students slide one of their books across their desks, you lift up your chair, and you blow on a
piece of paper, so it flutters in front of you. You also push on your writing board to demonstrate that you’re
exerting a force, but no work is being done because the writing board doesn’t move.
Which of the following guidelines for applying theories of concept learning with your students are you
best illustrating with your efforts?
a. Promote meaningful learning by defining the concept and linking it to related concepts.
b. Provide a variety of examples and nonexamples of the concept.
c. Sequence the examples beginning with the most typical and ending with those least familiar.
d. Present the examples in a real-world context.
** 28. By first having the students slide a book across their desks, followed by lifting up a chair, and then blowing
on a piece of paper so it flutters in front of you, of the following, which guideline for applying theories of
concept learning with your students are you best illustrating with your efforts?
a. Promote meaningful learning by defining the concept and linking it to related concepts.
b. Provide a variety of examples and nonexamples of the concept.
c. Sequence the examples beginning with the most typical and ending with those least familiar.
d. Present the examples in a real-world context.
** 29. Think about the example of having students push a book across their desks to illustrate the concept work.
By using an example such as this, which guideline for applying theories of concept learning with your
students are you best illustrating?
a. Promote meaningful learning by defining the concept and linking it to related concepts.
b. Provide a variety of examples and nonexamples of the concept.
c. Sequence the examples beginning with the most typical and ending with those least familiar.
d. Present the examples in a real-world context.
** 30. Consider the following concepts: square (plane figures with four equal sides and four equal angles), acid
(solutions that taste sour), direct object (parts of speech that receive the action of the verb), and democracy
(government by people, usually by elected representatives, or a state so governed). Based on our
understanding of concepts and the way students learn them, which one would be most difficult for middle
school students to learn?
a. Square
b. Acid
c. Direct object
d. Democracy
Chapter 7: Cognitive Views of Learning
Essay Items
** 31. Describe rule-driven and exemplar theories of concept learning, and provide an example of each.
** 32. Explain why concept learning is a complex cognitive process, and illustrate your explanation with
examples.
** 33. Describe four guidelines that teachers can follow to help their students learn concepts. Provide an example
of each.
Problem Solving
* 34. Of the following, which is the best description of a problem?
a. A state that exists when an individual is faced with an idea that he or she doesn’t understand.
b. A state that exists when an individual has a goal but lacks an obvious way of achieving the goal.
c. A state that exists when individuals disagree about basic concepts, ideas, or goals.
d. A state that exists when an individual’s understanding of an idea includes the construction of
misconceptions.
** 35. Which of the following is the best example of a well-defined problem?
a. Your eighth graders won’t consistently turn in their homework.
b. You have a doctor’s appointment, but you don’t know how to get to her office.
c. Your colleagues’ disagreements are having a negative effect on the morale in your department.
d. You want to make a career switch but don’t know what direction to take.
** 36. Of the following, the best example of a well-defined problem is:
a. chemistry students’ finding the molecular weight of an unknown compound.
b. nutrition students’ planning well-balanced meals on a budget.
c. PE students’ designing their own effective personal fitness plan.
d. English students’ writing a personal autobiography.
** 37. Which of the following content domains found in schools is least likely to have well-defined problems to
consider?
a. Economics
b. Algebra
c. Chemistry
d. Geometry
** 38. Which of the following is the best example of an ill-defined problem?
a. 24 x 13 =
b. How many miles can a car drive on a tank full of gas if the vehicle gets 25 miles to the gallon and
the tank holds 16 gallons?
c. Should we purchase deadbolts for our house or a home security system?
d. If a three-pound bag of confectioner’s sugar contains 120 tablespoons, how many cups does it have?
** 39. Of the following, the best example of an ill-defined problem is:
a. students’ planning a strategy to combat the problem of homelessness in their city.
b. students’ devising proofs of a geometry problem.
c. students’ writing a paragraph to demonstrate knowledge of grammar and punctuation.
d. students’ computing the number of calories in different meals.
Chapter 7: Cognitive Views of Learning
** 40. A teacher is discussing a poll saying that students rate their role as citizen as least important to them. The
class decides that this is an important problem that something should be done about. Of the following, we
would best describe this problem as being:
a. ill-defined.
b. well-defined.
c. procedural.
d. concrete.
** 41. If their classrooms are typical, students are least likely to have experiences with which of the following?
a. Instruction in the use of specific algorithms
b. The domain-specific knowledge they need to solve problems
c. Practice in solving ill-defined problems
d. Practice in solving well-defined problems
* 42. Three of the following are suggestions for helping our students become better problem solvers. Which of
the following is not a suggestion for helping our students learn to solve problems?
a. Describe the characteristics of expert problem solvers to use as models for novices.
b. Teach a specific set of strategies to help students improve their problem-solving abilities.
c. Help students understand a problem-solving model that can be applied to a variety of domains.
d. Focus on training students to persevere when they work on difficult problems.
* 43. The first step in problem solving is to:
a. identify the problem.
b. devise a plan.
c. implement the plan.
d. evaluate the results.
* 44. Which of the following is the most comment obstacle to effectively identifying problems?
a. The tendency to get distracted and think too divergently
b. The tendency to give up prior to identifying a problem
c. The tendency to rush to trying a solution before the problem is defined
d. The tendency to lack effective efficacy and to become anxious
** 45. Jordan is solving problems in her second-grade math lesson. She got an answer that was different from the
other students in the class. She can’t seem to understand, even with others’ explanations, how everyone
else solved the problem. She can’t see it any way other than the erroneous way she initially solved it.
Jordan is best illustrating an inability to:
a. identify the problem.
b. think divergently.
c. find a solution state.
d. attend to the problem.
* 46. In a general approach to solving problems, the first step is typically to identify the problem goal. The next
step is to:
a. select a strategy.
b. represent the problem.
c. implement the strategy.
d. evaluate the results.
* 47. As you follow the steps involved in solving problems, after you have implemented a strategy, the next step
is to:
a. represent the problem.
b. evaluate the results.
c. attend to the details in the question.
d. assess your domain-specific knowledge.
Chapter 7: Cognitive Views of Learning
* 48. A rule that prescribes a specific set of steps for solving a problem is best described as a(n):
a. strategy.
b. mnemonic.
c. heuristic.
d. algorithm.
** 49. Using the FOIL (first, outside, inside, last) method to multiply binomials is best classified as a(n):
a. heuristic.
b. plan.
c. strategy.
d. algorithm.
* 50. Of the following, teachers can best help students learn to understand written math problems by encouraging
them to:
a. memorize a wide variety of algorithms.
b. brainstorm solutions to problem.
c. draw pictorial representations of problems.
d. rehearse the solutions to common problem types.
** 51. Of the following, the best example of a heuristic approach to problem solving is:
a. working backward from the proposed solution.
b. matching an algorithm to information that is given.
c. putting data in algorithms.
d. rehearsing important facts and algorithms.
* 52. Which of the following is not effective as a heuristic?
a. Convergent thinking
b. Means-end analysis
c. Working backward
d. Drawing analogies
* 53. Drawing analogies is referred to as a problem-solving:
a. heuristic.
b. algorithm.
c. rule.
d. prototype.
Use the following information for items 54 and 55.
Felicita is shopping for a computer, so she compares prices of different computers and then decides to buy the
one that is least expensive.
Alfredo wants to know how long it will take him to drive from New Orleans to San Antonio. He knows they
are about 500 miles apart, and he thinks he can average 60 miles an hour, so he estimates that he can make the drive
in a little more than 8 hours.
Karl is building a roof over his deck, which is shaped like a trapezoid. He looks up the formula for finding the
area of a trapezoid and then calculates the number of square feet of lumber that he will need.
Matt has been assigned a research paper in his English class. He first decides on a topic that is interesting to
him. He then goes to the Internet and other sources to gather information about the topic. He then creates an outline
that will guide him as he writes the paper.
** 54. The individual who best illustrates using an algorithm in solving his or her problem is:
a. Felicita.
b. Alfredo.
c. Karl.
d. Matt.
Chapter 7: Cognitive Views of Learning
** 55. The individual who best illustrates using a heuristic in solving his or her problem is:
a. Felicita.
b. Alfredo.
c. Karl.
d. Matt.
* 56. Which of the following best describes people who are experts?
a. People who have a great deal of general knowledge.
b. People who have natural ability in a particular area, such as athletics, music, or mathematics.
c. People who are very good at solving ill-defined problems.
d. People who are highly knowledgeable or skilled in a specific domain.
** 57. With respect to expertise, which of the following statements is most accurate?
a. If a person is an expert, he or she will have background knowledge in a wide variety of domains.
b. A person may be highly skilled in one domain, such as math, but lack skills in another domain, such
as writing.
c. Experts are people who have highly developed skills and knowledge in mathematics and related
fields, such as computer science.
d. Experts are people who are able to think creatively in a variety of areas.
** 58. Of the following, which individual most nearly demonstrates the characteristics of expertise.
Mary has a considerable experience with Microsoft PowerPoint, and she is able to create very effective
PowerPoint presentations.
Phil is an avid reader. He reads at least one novel a week and sometimes as many as two or three
novels in a week.
Jan is very much “on top of” world events. She regularly reads several newspapers, such as the New
York Times, the Washington Post, and the Wall Street Journal.
David is a very well-liked teacher. His students describe him as very personable, and students regularly
comment about how much fun they have in his classes.
a. Mary.
b. Phil.
c. Jan.
d. David.
* 59. Which of the following is not a characteristic of deliberate practice?
a. The practice emphasizes the development of basic facts, such as 6 x 9 = 54.
b. Practice is goal directed. We identify the skills we want to improve and we practice those skills
extensively.
c. The practice focuses on understanding and sense making.
d. The practice is conducted in real-world settings.
* 60. Which of the following is the least effective way to develop students’ problem-solving abilities?
a. Reinforce students’ use of algorithms.
b. Present a variety of examples.
c. Capitalize on social interaction.
d. Present problems in real-world settings.
* 61. Which of the following is the best definition of worked examples?
a. Problem solutions modeled by teachers and expert students
b. Problems with step–by-step completed solutions
c. Ill-defined problems that are solved using algorithms
d. Problems that are solved in cooperative groups, followed by whole-class discussions of the solutions
Chapter 7: Cognitive Views of Learning
* 62. Which of the following is the least effective strategy for promoting problem solving expertise in students?
a. Analyzing worked examples
b. Visually representing problems
c. Developing lessons with questioning
d. Emphasizing the importance of right answers
* 63. Worked examples are primarily a benefit to learners who:
a. lack self-efficacy.
b. lack experience with the procedure.
c. lack motivation to solve problems.
d. lack contextualized knowledge.
Consider the following for items 64-66.
In her mathematics class, Melanie is provided a number of strategies to use to help her solve word problems. One of
those strategies is to draw a picture or diagram of the problem. In her science class, recently, a different teacher
provided her with a problem to solve, and she immediately drew a picture of the problem. Last night, Melanie was
asked to arrange the seating for her sister’s wedding reception, and she started by drawing a picture of all of the
tables in the room.
** 64. Drawing a picture is best described as:
a. an algorithm.
b. a rule.
c. a component skill.
d. a strategy.
** 65. Drawing a picture best represents which step in a general approach to solving problems?
a. Identify and define the problem
b. Represent the problem
c. Evaluate the results
d. Attend to opportunities for transfer
** 66. Of the following, which is the most effective approach to practicing addition, subtraction, multiplication,
and division of fractions with both like and unlike denominators?
a. Have students practice one skill such as addition until students are confident with the ability; then
move to subtraction, multiplication, and division, being sure that students understand each before
moving to the next skill.
b. Have students solve addition and subtraction problems together and then move to multiplication and
division problems
c. Have student solve a mixture of problems in no particular order, such as a couple involving addition,
then some involving division, multiplication, and subtraction
d. Have students first practice solving problems with like denominators and then have students practice
problems with unlike denominators.
Items 67-69 are related.
* 67. All things being equal, which of the following is the best predictor of ability to solve a given problem
successfully?
a. Metacognitive regulation
b. Problem-solving strategies
c. Domain-specific knowledge
d. Ample time to solve the problem
Chapter 7: Cognitive Views of Learning
** 68. Jesse is teaching his students how to solve Sudoku problems. He tells them how to solve them and then
provides several examples that are completed. The strategy Jesse is using best illustrates:
a. teaching metacognitive strategies.
b. providing worked examples.
c. modeling critical thinking.
d. illustrating elaborative questioning.
** 69. If the learners successfully solve new problems by comparing them with those presented in class, which of
the following heuristics will they be using?
a. Means-ends analysis
b. Hill climbing
c. Working backward
d. Drawing analogies
Use the following example to answer items 70–72.
Mr. Wilson has presented his students with the following problem:
We have a quart of pure alcohol. If we add a cup of water to the alcohol, what percent of the new mixture is alcohol?
He then says, “Let’s look at what we’re given and what we want.”
“We want the total amount of the mixture we have together,” Robert suggests.
“I think we should first find the fraction of the total that is alcohol,” Eva suggests.
After some discussion, the class decides that the mixture is 75% alcohol. “I don’t think that’s right,” Kathy
observes. “We have 5 cups of mixture altogether, and only one of those cups is water.”
** 70. Mr. Wilson’s statement: “Let’s look at what we’re given and what we want,” best illustrates his attempt to
help his students with which step in the problem-solving process?
a. Identifying the problem goal
b. Selecting a strategy
c. Implementing the strategy
d. Evaluating the results
** 71. Eva’s comment is most closely related to which step in the problem-solving process?
a. Identifying the problem goal
b. Selecting a strategy
c. Implementing the strategy
d. Evaluating the results
** 72. Kathy’s comment is most closely related to which step in the problem-solving process?
a. Identifying the problem goal
b. Devising a plan
c. Implementing the plan
d. Evaluating the results
** 73. Susan, Jabar, and Saroja were working on an algebra problem involving the time it takes for separate trains
to reach a destination. Saroja said, “Well, maybe we could draw a picture of the problem.”
“But I don’t know how to draw trains!” Susan replies.
“Maybe if we tried different numbers, we could see what works,” Jabar suggests.
Which of the following is the best description of this discussion?
a. They are not attending to the problem they were assigned.
b. They are using social interaction to help them determine how to solve the problem.
c. They have more background knowledge than they need to solve the problem.
d. They are preparing to use an algorithm to further their understanding.
Chapter 7: Cognitive Views of Learning
* 74. Of the following, which is the best definition of creativity?
a. A characteristic associated with people who are gifted or talented in a specific area
b. The ability to produce original works or solutions to problems that are productive
c. The ability to create clever ideas that other people are unable to create
d. A characteristic of working memory that involves automatic encoding of information
** 75. Of the following, which individual best illustrates creativity?
a. After seeing a TV character using a particularly clever phrase, Sancha uses the phrase with his
friends, hoping to impress them with his wit.
b. Rick is making spaghetti for Suzanne, a girl he wants to impress. He has no way of straining the
spaghetti until he sees a piece of screen-door screen, which he washes and then uses as a strainer.
c. Jerome’s running shoes are starting to get smelly from sweat, so he washes them and then wears
them for his run that afternoon even though they’re still damp from the washing.
d. Dana decides to redecorate his room, so he removes his bed, puts his mattress on the floor, hangs
fishing net from the ceiling, and puts in dim lighting to create a feeling of intimacy like his friend
Bill has done.
Use the following example to answer items 76-79.
Jim Bolton is attempting to use a problem-solving approach in his Business Law class. He presents his students
with a case study that illustrates uncertainty in whether or not a large business is in compliance with government
regulations. He models an analysis of the case study, including the process of identifying the problem goal,
representing the problem, selecting and implementing a strategy, and evaluating the results.
He then presents the students with another case study and has them attempt to apply the steps he has modeled.
In this second case study, which is slightly different from the first, the students—with Jim’s guidance—determine
that their task is to determine why the second business is not in compliance. Again with his guidance, the students
decide that they will first identify the regulations that might be relevant to the information in the second case study.
The students then work in pairs to identify the regulations that they believe the company is violating and why they
believe the company is violating these regulations. Finally, Jim conducts a whole-class discussion in which the
students offer different views about whether or not their conclusions are valid.
** 76. Of the following, which strategy for improving our students’ problem solving abilities is Jim best applying
by using case studies as the framework for teaching problem solving in business law?
a. Present problems in real-world contexts.
b. Develop students’ expertise with worked examples.
c. Capitalize on social interaction.
d. Encourage sense making.
** 77. Of the following, which strategy for improving our students’ problem solving abilities is Jim best applying
by modeling an analysis of his first case study including all the steps involved in the analysis?
a. Present problems in real-world contexts?
b. Develop students’ expertise with worked examples.
c. Capitalize on social interaction.
d. Encourage sense making.
** 78. Of the following, which strategy for improving our students’ problem solving abilities is Jim best applying
by having his students work in pairs to analyze the second case study and identify the regulations they
believe the company is violating and why they believe the company is violating those regulations?
a. Present problems in real-world contexts.
b. Develop students’ expertise with worked examples.
c. Capitalize on social interaction.
d. Encourage sense making.
Chapter 7: Cognitive Views of Learning
** 79. Of the following, which strategy for improving our students’ problem solving abilities is Jim best applying
by having students offer different views about whether or not their conclusions are valid?
a. Present problems in real-world contexts.
b. Develop students’ expertise with worked examples.
c. Capitalize on social interaction.
d. Encourage sense making.
* 80. Which of the following is a characteristic of problem-based learning?
a. Lessons begin with an ambiguous problem, and the learning activity focuses on defining the
problem.
b. Learners are allowed “free reign,” so they develop both content knowledge and effective strategic
problem solving without your outside influence.
c. A concluding lecture is used to tie together the work done by the students.
d. The teacher guides student’s efforts with questioning and other forms of scaffolding as they work
toward solving a problem that is the focus of the learning activity.
Use the following information for items 81 and 82.
Look at the following teachers’ goals and the learning activities they use to help their students reach the goals.
Scott, a science teacher, wants his students to understand that weight doesn’t affect the frequency of a simple
pendulum, so he has his students attach different numbers of paper clips to strings of the same length to demonstrate
that the frequency doesn’t change.
Helen, a math teacher, has her students work in pairs to solve a series of problems, such as: You have eaten one
piece of a pizza cut into 8 pieces, and one piece of another same-sized pizza cut into 6 pieces. How much pizza did
you eat?
Vicki, an English teacher, wants her students to determine the characteristics of novels considered to be
classics, so during the school year they read a series of novels such as Moby Dick, A Tale of Two Cities, and The
Scarlet Letter, and they work to devise a plan to examine characteristics of the novels that might lead to them being
considered classics.
Jared, a geography teacher, wants his students to know the names of all the countries in North and South
America and their capitals, so he gives them blank maps and has them fill in the countries and locate and name their
capitals.
** 81. The teacher who most nearly used a problem-based learning approach was:
a. Scott.
b. Helen.
c. Vicki.
d. Jared.
** 82. The teacher who least nearly used a problem-based learning approach was:
a. Scott.
b. Helen.
c. Vicki.
d. Jared.
Essay Items
* 83. Describe the difference between well-defined and ill-defined problem solving, and give an example of
each.
* 84. Identify two challenges in teaching problem solving, and explain why they are so challenging.
** 85. Your text discusses essential characteristics of deliberate practice. First, describe deliberate practice, and
explain why it is important. Second, identify and describe the characteristics of deliberate practice.
Chapter 7: Cognitive Views of Learning
** 86. Given the classic cannibal-missionary problem that follows, and illustrate each of the steps of the general
problem-solving strategy presented in your text.
Three cannibals and three missionaries must cross a river. Their boat can only hold two people. If the
cannibals cannot outnumber the missionaries on either side of the river at any time, and each missionary
and each cannibal can row the boat, explain how all six can get across the river?
** 87. Describe four guidelines that teachers can follow, or strategies they can use, as they attempt to help their
students become better problem solvers, and provide an example of each.
The Strategic Learner
* 88. Cognitive operations that go beyond the normal activities required to carry out a task are called:
a. concepts.
b. academic rules.
c. principles.
d. strategies.
* 89. Highlighting parts of the text you feel are important is best described as a(n):
a. academic rule.
b. concept.
c. principle.
d. strategy.
* 90. All of the following are examples of strategies except:
a. concept learning.
b. elaborative questioning
c. summarizing.
d. highlighting.
** 91. Which student following is being most “strategic” in his or her approach to studying?
a. Enrique carefully reads the chapter and then goes back and rereads it.
b. Madena reads a paragraph, realizes that she has drifted off, and then reads the paragraph again.
c. Antonio looks at the chapter outline and then reads the chapter.
d. Carla reads a section of the chapter and then writes two or three summary sentences about the
section.
** 92. Three students are discussing their approaches to understanding the information being taught in their
history class.
“I always read my history before I do math,” Ken notes. “That gets it out of the way, and then I can
enjoy myself.”
“I never miss a homework assignment in that class,” Tim shrugs. “You know how Mrs. Cooksey is
about homework. I’d be scared to death not to do it.”
“I always read the history assignment before I go to class,” Toni comments. “Mrs. Cooksey goes so
fast. If I’ve already read about the stuff she’s discussing, I don’t have to work so hard to keep up.”
The student that best illustrates strategic behavior is:
a. Ken.
b. Tim.
c. Toni.
* 93. Which of the following is most closely related to strategic learning?
a. Modeling
b. Rehearsal
c. Perception
d. Metacognition
Chapter 7: Cognitive Views of Learning
** 94. Of the following, which student is most directly displaying metacognition?
a. Karen stops herself during reading and asks herself if she understands what she’s read.
b. Peggy reads over her notes in preparation for an upcoming exam.
c. Bob always conscientiously does his homework.
d. Jonna reads a related textbook on probability because she is interested.
* 95. On which theory of learning is strategic learning most nearly based?
a. Behaviorism
b. Social cognitive theory
c. Information processing
d. Constructivism
* 96. Techniques students use to increase their understanding of written materials and teachers’ presentations are
described as:
a. critical thinking skills.
b. study strategies.
c. problem-solving abilities.
d. processing strategies.
* 97. Research that has been done on study strategies has focused primarily on the ways students learn from:
a. written materials.
b. verbal presentations.
c. cooperative activities.
d. class discussions.
* 98. Of the following, the study strategy that is most likely to be misused, with the result being a lack of
meaningful encoding is:
a. highlighting.
b. self-questioning.
c. summarizing.
d. representing tasks with hierarchies and outlines.
* 99. Research indicates that, of the following, the most common study strategy is:
a. elaborative questioning.
b. highlighting.
c. summarizing.
d. note taking.
* 100. Which of the following is the most important in a study strategy’s effectiveness?
a. The act of performing the strategy (such as the act of taking notes).
b. The detail involved in the strategy (such as taking comprehensive notes).
c. The memorization involved in the strategy (such as memorizing notes after they’re taken).
d. The decision about what is important (such as deciding what and what not to write down).
** 101. You want to teach your students to summarize. You have a passage two pages long that you want them to
practice on. According to research on teaching the process, which of the following is the most effective?
a. Have the students highlight the information they think is important in each paragraph.
b. Have the students skim the material and identify the paragraph in the passage that they think is most
important.
c. Have the students construct a topic sentence for each paragraph.
d. Have the students write down the facts in the passage that they think are important.
Chapter 7: Cognitive Views of Learning
* 102. According to research, which of the following is likely to be the most effective study strategy?
a. Underlining
b. Summarizing
c. Note taking
d. Highlighting
* 103. If a student’s study habits are consistent with patterns identified by research, which of the following is
likely to be the least effective study strategy?
a. Highlighting
b. Note taking
c. Summarizing
d. Self-questioning
* 104. One means to assist learners in their note taking is to:
a. provide summarized notes.
b. provide your lecture notes.
c. provide guided notes.
d. provide complete notes.
** 105. Josh is studying behaviorism, so he creates the following to help him keep the ideas straight:
Behaviorism
___________________|_______________________
| |
Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning
_______|________ ________|________
| | | |
Stimulus Response Reinforcement Punishment
Of the following, Josh’s strategy best illustrates:
a. note taking.
b. concept mapping.
c. using text signals.
d. summarizing
** 106. Three of the following are considered to be text signals. Which one is not a text signal?
a. A concept map provided within a textbook chapter
b. An outline presented at the beginning of the chapter
c. An important definition in italic print within a chapter
d. A series of end–of-chapter comprehension questions
** 107. Based on the human memory model, what is the best explanation for why text signals facilitate learning?
a. They primarily serve an elaboration function.
b. They primarily serve an organization function.
c. They primarily serve an attention-focusing function.
d. They primarily serve a sensory memory function.
* 108. Based on the human memory model, what is the best explanation for why summarizing facilitates learning?
a. It serves a comprehension-monitoring function.
b. It serves an imagery function.
c. It serves an attention-focusing function.
d. It serves a sensory memory function.
Chapter 7: Cognitive Views of Learning
Items 109 and 110 are related.
* 109. You are studying for an exam that will assess your understanding of information processing and human
memory. Based on research examining study strategies, which of the following is likely to be most
effective?
a. To put yourself in a positive frame of mind, put on some soothing music while you study, such as
some smooth jazz.
b. Carefully study one aspect of the human memory model, such as the memory stores, and then turn to
the second component, such as the cognitive processes.
c. Create some flash cards with the definitions of all the components, such as working memory and
long-term memory on them.
d. Vary where you study, such as at home, in the library, and in a coffee shop.
* 110. It’s Monday and you’re preparing to study for your exam, which will be Friday. If you base your study on
research results, which of the following is the most effective approach?
a. Study for an hour on Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, and Thursday.
b. Study for two hours on Monday and another two hours on Wednesday. Take a break Thursday to let
your understanding settle and assimilate
c. Study for an hour on Monday, another hour Tuesday, take a break Wednesday, and study two hours
Thursday to be sure that everything is fresh in your mind.
d. Study for an hour Tuesday and then study carefully for three hours Thursday to be sure all your
learning has been consolidated.
** 111. Mr. Small wants his students to learn to take effective and meaningful notes on their own. Of the following,
the best way to help them in this process would be to:
a. tell them to listen to important points in the lecture and take notes on those points.
b. remind them to take comprehensive notes and then review them later.
c. provide a way for them to organize information, such as a matrix.
d. tell them at different points in the presentation that they should be writing the information down in
their notes.
Use the following case study to answer items 112 and 113.
Four students are discussing the use of highlighting as a strategy for making reading from their textbooks more
meaningful.
“I highlight the first sentence of nearly every paragraph, because that’s supposed to be the topic sentence,”
Karen comments. “Then I return later and focus on them.”
“I highlight passages that I think are important,” Joanne adds. “I look for key terms, examples, and statements
that connect different topics. I try not to highlight too much.”
“I highlight practically whole chapters,” Brad counters. “I read along with it as I’m highlighting. I think it
helps.”
“I highlight a lot too,” Tiffany adds. “If I highlight, then I don’t have to read it so carefully, and I can listen to
music while I study.”
** 112. Based on the information in the example, the student whose strategy is likely to be most effective is:
a. Karen.
b. Joanne.
c. Brad.
d. Tiffany.
** 113. Based on the information in the example, the student whose strategy is likely to be least effective is:
a. Karen.
b. Joanne.
c. Brad.
d. Tiffany.
Chapter 7: Cognitive Views of Learning
** 114. LaTeisha doesn’t like world history particularly well, but she has developed a strategy to help her
understand the content. She reads the assignment writing down terms she believes are important as she
reads. Then, she rereads the assignment and relates the terms to each other with linking words or phrases.
LaTeisha’s strategy best illustrates which of the following?
a. Summarizing
b. Note taking
c. Concept mapping
d. Highlighting
* 115. Of the following, which is the best description of critical thinking?
a. The ability to reflect on a tangible or intangible item in order to form a judgment
b. The ability to use discernment, analysis, and evaluation in thinking
c. The ability and inclination to use all the senses in gathering and organizing information
d. The ability and inclination to make and assess conclusions based on evidence
** 116. Jalen has very strong political ideas, and he frequently cites evidence that supports his ideas. When his
friend, Damon, offers evidence that contradicts his ideas, he tends to dismiss what Damon has to say, and
cites the evidence supporting his ideas as the reason for dismissing Damon’s evidence. Which of the
following best describes the tendencies in Jalen’s thinking?
a. Critical thinking
b. Metacognition
c. Strategic learning
d. Belief preservation
** 117. Nick believes in the tooth fairy. His friend, Joe, gives him a convincing, logical argument asserting that his
parents are really the tooth fairy. If Nick’s behavior is consistent with most learners’ behaviors, he will be
likely to:
a. conclude that Joe is correct.
b. retain his belief in the tooth fairy.
c. question his belief in the tooth fairy
d. gather contradictory evidence.
Use the following example for items 118 and 119.
Ms. Wang is working on simplifying arithmetic expressions with her pre-algebra class. She has explained the rule
for simplifying expressions, has demonstrated the process, and has had the students work two examples. She now
displays the following problem for her students:
4 + 9(6) – 6 + 8/2
** 118. Of the following, the question that requires the most critical thinking on the part of students would be:
a. “Why do we multiply 9 by 6 before we add the 4?
b. “Now, what is the first step we take to solve the problem?”
c. “What is the answer to this problem?”
d. “What does the problem tell us to do?”
** 119. Of the following, the question that least promotes critical thinking in the students would be:
a. “How would the solution be affected if the sign between the 6 and 8 were an “x” instead of a “+”?”
b. “Now, what is the first step we take to solve the problem?”
c. “How is this problem like the last one we did?”
d. “What do we get when we add 4 to 6 times 9?”
Chapter 7: Cognitive Views of Learning
* 120. Of the following, the best teacher question to promote critical thinking on the part of students is:
a. “What is the first thing that we always do?”
b. “What do you see?”
c. “What do parentheses tell us to do?”
d. “How do you know?”
Look at the following example, and answer items 121 and 122 in the context of critical thinking.
Mrs. Nickerson’s students are analyzing a table illustrating the average global temperature for the years 1960-2010.
She begins by asking, “What do we have here?”
“A graph showing temperatures over the last 50 years,” Marianne replies.
“What do you notice in the data?” she asks.
After students make several observations, Rafael notes, “The temperatures are increasing, particularly in the last
20 years.”
“Why would Rafael say that?” Mrs. Nickerson responds.
“For one thing, the five hottest temperatures are all in the last 20 years,” Vicki responds.
After some additional discussion, Mrs. Nickerson asks, “What are we doing here?”
“We’re looking for trends in the data,” Sebastian responds.
** 121. The question that most nearly promotes critical thinking is:
a. “What do we have here?”
b. “What do you notice in the data?”
c. “Why would Rafael say that?”
d. “What are we doing here?”
** 122. The student who is most nearly demonstrating metacognition is:
a. Marianne.
b. Rafael.
c. Vicki.
d. Sebastian.
Essay Item
** 123. Describe three guidelines that teachers can apply as they attempt to promote strategic learning in their
students, and provide an example of each.
Transfer of Learning
* 124. The ability to apply previous learning to new situations best describes:
a. metacognition.
b. study strategies.
c. critical thinking.
d. transfer.
** 125. In her mathematics class, Melanie is provided a with number of strategies to use to help her solve word
problems. Drawing a picture or diagram of the problem is one of those strategies. In her science class,
recently, a different teacher provided her with a problem to solve, and she immediately drew a picture of
the problem. Last night, Melanie was asked to arrange the seating for her sister’s wedding reception, and
she started by drawing a picture of all of the tables in the room. By drawing a picture in both science and
for the wedding reception seating arrangement, Melanie is best demonstrating:
a. metacognition.
b. intelligence.
c. transfer.
d. critical thinking
Chapter 7: Cognitive Views of Learning
** 126. Mr. Andriesse has taught his fifth graders about metaphors and similes. He has given them several
examples of each, and they also formed a definition of each. He then supplied the term metaphor and
linked it to its definition and then introduced the term simile and linked it to its definition. Mr. Andriesse
then had them write a paragraph that included at least three examples each of similes and metaphors. Most
of the students were able to do it. For those that were, this best illustrates:
a. metacognition.
b. study skills.
c. transfer.
d. critical thinking.
* 127. The ability to apply knowledge or skills learned in one context to a wide variety of different contexts is best
described as:
a. positive transfer.
b. specific transfer.
c. general transfer.
d. global transfer.
* 128. The ability to apply information in a context similar to the one in which it was originally learned is best
described as:
a. positive transfer.
b. specific transfer.
c. general transfer.
d. global transfer.
** 129. Jorge has found that the knowledge he has of the structure of Spanish, his native language, has helped him
learn English structure and syntax. Of the following, Jorge’s experience best illustrates:
a. general transfer.
b. specific transfer.
c. conceptual enhancement.
d. the use of mnemonics.
** 130. Students in a biology class study single-subject experimental design as one of their topics. Sometime later
they use a single-subject design in a project for their psychology class. Of the following, this best
illustrates:
a. general transfer.
b. specific transfer.
c. identical elements.
d. global transfer.
** 131. Educational leaders at one time believed that studying courses such as Latin were effective because they
disciplined the mind and made learning of other content areas, such as mathematics, more efficient? If this
belief had been correct, it would illustrate:
a. specific transfer.
b. general transfer.
c. global transfer.
d. total transfer.
** 132. Jana demonstrated how to do double digit subtraction problems with regrouping in class. Students then
practiced during class time while working with a peer. They then completed six more problems as
homework. Successfully completing the homework best illustrates:
a. general transfer.
b. specific transfer.
c. concrete transfer.
d. global transfer.
Chapter 7: Cognitive Views of Learning
** 133. Students learned to compute proportions and then were guided to use the computations to figure out the
proportions of un-popped kernels found in different brands of popcorn. Of the following, this behavior can
best be described as:
a. general transfer.
b. specific transfer.
c. concrete transfer.
d. global transfer.
** 134. Research indicates that some dispositions, such as the tendency to remain open-minded and look for
evidence, the inclination to consider sources of opinions, and the ability to reserve judgment apply in a
variety of contexts. These dispositions best illustrate:
a. general transfer.
b. specific transfer.
c. concrete transfer.
d. global transfer.
* 135. According to cognitive views of learning, of the following, the concept that is most important in facilitating
transfer is:
a. reinforcement.
b. rehearsal.
c. expectations.
d. meaningfulness.
* 136. Three of the following are factors that affect transfer. Which one is not a factor that affects transfer?
a. Similarity between learning situations
b. Reinforcement of basic skills
c. Depth of original understanding
d. Learning context
** 137. Students on a math test performed well on a set of computational problems but were not able to solve word
problems in which the same computational skills were required. Of the following, the most likely reason
for this fact is:
a. students hadn’t sufficiently rehearsed the computations to the point where they were automatic.
b. the teacher failed to provide enough drill and practice with the computational problems.
c. the algorithms for the computations were not encoded in the students’ long-term memories.
d. the practice context and the problem-solving context were not similar enough to allow transfer to
occur.
** 138. Linda is new to personal computing and yesterday learned a new “quick” command in EXCEL. She used
“control–c” to copy part of the spreadsheet and “control–v” to paste it elsewhere. Last night she was
working on a paper in the lab and decided to reorder the paragraphs. She used “control-c” and “control–v”
in the Word program. Of the following, the factor affecting the transfer of learning is:
a. similarity between the two learning situations.
b. motivation involved in the learning experiences.
c. depth of understanding and practice.
d. quality of learning experiences.
Use the following information for items 139-141.
Learners have been shown the following examples of the concept mammal: dog, cat, horse, and deer.
** 139. Of the following, they are most likely to transfer the concept to:
a. cow.
b. bat.
c. whale.
d. kangaroo.
Chapter 7: Cognitive Views of Learning
** 140. Of the following, they are least likely to transfer the concept to:
a. cow.
b. bat.
c. mouse.
d. squirrel.
** 141. Of the following, the factor affecting transfer that is most nearly operating in items 139 and 140 is:
a. similarity between learning situations.
b. depth of original understanding.
c. learning context.
d. emphasis on metacognition.
* 142. According to cognitive theories of learning, which of the following does not positively affect transfer?
a. The number of times an answer is reinforced.
b. The depth of understanding and practice.
c. The quality of learners’ experiences.
d. The context into which learners’ experiences are embedded.
* 143. Of the following, the factor that is most important in facilitating the transfer of concepts is:
a. giving students a chance to actively rehearse definitions of the concepts.
b. demonstrating that what they are learning is important.
c. providing a variety of high-quality examples.
d. beginning lessons with attention-getting demonstrations.
* 144. Of the following, which is least likely to influence transfer of learning?
a. Placing emphasis on learner metacognition
b. Rehearsal of important concepts and definitions
c. The variety of content representations that are used
d. Similarity between the learning situation and the target situation
Use the following information for items 145 and 146.
Mr. Lucas wants his students to understand the concept reptile, and he shows them colored pictures of an
alligator sunning itself beside a stream, a lizard in some bushes, a snake in a tree, and a chameleon in some grass.
On a quiz a few days later, he shows students colored pictures of a crocodile partially immersed in a lake, a
rattlesnake on the plains, a sea turtle in the ocean, and a lizard in the desert, together with a series of other animals,
such as a cockroach, a mouse, and an eagle, which they will not identify as reptiles if they understand the concept.
Most of the students correctly identify the crocodile, rattlesnake, and lizard as reptiles, but many fail to correctly
identify the sea turtle as a reptile.
** 145. Of the following, the factor affecting transfer that is most likely the reason that the students fail to identify
the sea turtle as a reptile is:
a. lack of similarity between the two learning situations.
b. inadequate variety of examples.
c. inadequate original understanding.
d. lack of emphasis on metacognition.
** 146. Mr. Lucas’s efforts to show the animals in their habitats, such as the alligator beside the stream and the
lizard in some bushes, best illustrate his attempts to capitalize on which of the following factors that affect
transfer?
a. Similarity between learning situations
b. Depth of original understanding
c. Learning context
d. Emphasis on metacognition
Chapter 7: Cognitive Views of Learning
** 147. Mr. Smith attempts to help his students understand the concept of inertia by relating it to why people are
required to wear seatbelts in their cars. Mrs. Evans has her students solve a variety of word problems that
involve fractions, decimals, and percents. Mr. Leander has his students practice study skills in English,
geography, and science. Each of the teachers was attempting to capitalize on which of the following factors
that promote transfer?
a. Similarity between learning situations
b. Learning context
c. Depth of original understanding
d. Emphasis on metacognition
Essay Items
* 148. Describe the difference between general and specific transfer, and provide an example of each.
* 149. Describe and illustrate each of the four factors that affect transfer of learning.
** 150. Providing a variety of high-quality examples embedded in context is arguably the most important thing a
teacher can do to promote transfer. Using cognitive learning theory as a basis, explain why this might be
the case.
** 151. Describe three guidelines teachers we can follow to help promote transfer in our students, and provide an
example of each.
Chapter 7: Cognitive Views of Learning
CHAPTER EIGHT ANSWERS
Concept Learning
Problem Solving
Chapter 7: Cognitive Views of Learning
Chapter 7: Cognitive Views of Learning
Chapter 7: Cognitive Views of Learning
Transfer of Learning
Chapter 7: Cognitive Views of Learning