Chapter 8
Chapter Focus
Professionals working with students who require special education services are concerned with
how those students perform on educational measures. The norm-referenced achievement test is
one such measure. Of all standardized tests, individually administered achievement tests are the
most numerous (Anastasi & Urbina, 1998).
This chapter discusses several commonly used norm-referenced individual achievement tests.
The information presented will enable you to apply your knowledge about reliability and validity
to these instruments. You will learn some basic scoring methods that can be generalized to other
instruments.
Check Your Understanding
Activity 8.1
1. How many parallel forms are included in the Woodcock–Johnson III Tests of
Achievement? What is the advantage of having different forms of the same instrument?
2. For what age range is the WJ III intended?
3. What populations were included in the norming process of the third edition?
4. What new school level is included in the WJ III? Why has it been included?
Apply Your Knowledge
Refer to the WJ III subtest descriptions in your text. Which subtests would not be appropriate for
a student to complete in the standard fashion if the student had a severe fine-motor disability and
could not use a pencil or keyboard? What adaptations would be appropriate? Explain the ethical
considerations that should be addressed in making such adaptations.
Activity 8.2
1. How is the starting point for the Reading Recognition subtest determined?
2. How is the Reading Comprehension start point determined?
3. What response mode is used on many of the items in this test?
4. How does this response mode impact scores?
5. Using the information provided on the portion of the PIAT–R protocol (Figure 8.1), determine
the Total Reading raw score.
Activity 8.3
1. You are concerned about a student who is having difficulty answering questions about
reading passages. In addition to assessing the student’s ability with curriculum materials,
you decide to assess the student’s skills using a norm-referenced test. Which subtest of
the KTEA–II assesses a student’s ability to answer literal and inferential comprehension
questions?
2. Most of your kindergarten students have been making adequate progress in their ability to
match sounds, blend sounds, and segment sounds, and delete sounds. The data you have
collected using CBMs indicate that one student has not made adequate progress. You
decide to assess this student using the KTEA–II. Which subtests will you use?
3. What is the difference between an item-level error analysis and a within-item error
analysis?
Activity 8.4
A third-grade boy, age 8 years, 7 months, answered the items on a math calculation subtest in the
following manner.
1. 11. 21. 1 31. 1
2. 12. 22. 1 32. 0
3. 13. 23. 1 33. 0
4. 14. 24. 0 34. 0
5. 15. 1 25. 1 35. 0
6. 16. 1 26. 1 36. 0
7. 17. 1 27. 0 37.
8. 18. 1 28. 0 38.
9. 19. 1 29. 0 39.
10. 20. 0 30. 0 40.
1. The basal for this subtest is 5 consecutive items correct and the ceiling is 5 consecutive
items incorrect. What is this student’s raw score?
2. The Daily Math Skills subtest has already been scored. The obtained raw score for the
Daily Math Skills subtest was 38. Write the appropriate scores in the spaces provided on
the sample protocol.
3. Add the raw scores and place the sum in the raw score box for the math composite score.
Look at the norm table below. Locate the standard scores and percentile ranks for this
student. Write the scores in the appropriate spaces.
Apply Your Knowledge
With the average standard score of 100 and the median percentile rank of 50, in what area(s)
does this third-grade student appear to need intervention?
On the test presented in Activity 8.4, an examiner can determine if there are any significant
differences between composite scores. Look at the composite scores listed below. Subtract the
scores to determine the amount of difference between the composite scores.
Math Composite 92
Written Language Composite 87
Reading Composite 72
On the following table, write the differences in the appropriate spaces. Examine the table and
determine if any of the differences between composite scores are significant.
Apply Your Knowledge
How would you explain the significant difference concept to the parents of this child? How
might this significant difference impact educational interventions?
Answer: The idea of significant difference between subtests indicates that a difference of
this size (.01) between a set of scores is unlikely to be by chance, meaning that it is
reasonable to conclude (with little room for error) that there is a discrepancy between this
child’s math and reading abilities.
Educational intervention may include additional time and more intensive instruction in
the area of reading. It would be helpful to conduct additional assessments in the area of
reading to determine what specific skills are deficient. For example, is it due to reading
decoding, reading comprehension, reading fluency, etc.
Activity 8.5
1. The portion of this error analysis includes the student’s performance on items 35–50.
Based on this section of the error analysis, which short vowel sounds seem to be
problematic?
2. In which categories did the student have no errors?
3. How many errors were made that were considered entire-word mistakes?
4. How many types of vowel errors were made by this student?
5. What is meant by the term misordered sounds?
Apply Your Knowledge
Give examples of words with insertion and omission errors.
Activity 8.6
1. Which subtest includes items that assess phonemic awareness?
2. Which subtest includes vocabulary and sentence comprehension?
3. A student who scores significantly below the levels expected on the subtests of word
reading, reading comprehension, spelling, and pseudoword decoding but was within the
range expected on other subtests might be referred for additional assessment. What will
assessment help to determine?
4. A student in your class seems to take longer to respond in writing on tasks he is asked to
do during class time. He also writes much briefer responses and often uses very short,
simple words. His reading level is at the range expected. With what skill might this
student be struggling?
5. Which subtests of the WIAT–III would you analyze closely for a student in your class who is
struggling in math?
Activity 8.7
1. On the WJ III DRB, which subtests assess decoding skills?
2. A student who has difficulty with decoding skills may have underlying weaknesses in
what areas?
3. What factors contribute to reading comprehension?
Apply Your Knowledge
Even though the WJ III DRB and other diagnostic tests measure academic skills, what other
factors may influence academics that are not measured on academic achievement tests?
Answer: Answers may vary but could include: Personal factors such as hunger,
tiredness or just having a bad day. Disabilities could also influence academic skills.
Activity 8.8
1. One of the subtests of the PAL tests the student’s ability to repeat sequences with their
fingers. What is the name of this subtest?
2. Which subtest assesses a student’s ability to select the correct spellings of words?
3. On which subtests are phonemic awareness and early prereading skills assessed?
4. Which complex subtest requires the student to be able to understand concepts such as
position placement in a sequence of letters in order to respond to the task?
Think Ahead Exercises
Part I
1. __ indicates the amount of chance occurrence of the difference between two scores.
2. Statewide assessment instruments are one form of __.
3. Reading passages from the basal text are used to assess students’ reading levels at the end
of each chapter. This is a form of ___.
4. When one student is compared with a national sample of students of the same age, it is
called ___.
5. Reading decoding and reading comprehension scores on a test will yield an overall
reading score. In this example, reading decoding and reading comprehension are ___.
6. The K–TEA–II and the PIAT–R are individually administered ___.
7. A broad-based instrument that samples a few items across the domains of a curriculum is
called a(n) ___.
8. A student’s classroom performance in reading is inconsistent. Her teacher is not certain
that he has identified where her performance is breaking down. In order to obtain more
specific and in–depth information about this student’s reading skills, he might use a
different ___.
9. When informal methods and classroom interventions do not seem to have effective
results, a teacher may need additional assessment information. This information can be
provided by using _____ to compare the student to national average performance.
10. Are designed to measure strength, talent, or ability in a particular domain or area.
Part II
1. This diagnostic mathematics test is normed for students through the grade skill levels of
twelfth grade.
2. This test, which provides a model of performance in reading, offers a diagnostic look at
reading without necessitating the administration of an entire achievement battery.
3. This test has standard and supplemental batteries.
4. This diagnostic test may be used in the very early grades to assess the cognitive abilities
and functions required for reading.
5. This diagnostic test would not be used to assess complex calculus skills or other college-
level math.
6. This test provides cluster scores and individual subtest scores.
7. These academic achievement instruments were co-normed with their cognitive
assessment instruments.
8. This achievement test includes a Language Composite that measures both expressive
language and receptive listening skills.
9. This academic achievement test includes many multiple-choice items that may encourage
guessing.
10. This test includes measures for rapid naming.
11. This vocabulary assessment asks the student to name pictures or provide synonyms.
12. This vocabulary test was co-normed with the PPVT–4.
Chapter 8 Test Bank
True and False
1. Screening tests are appropriate for determining placement and eligibility in special
education services.
2. Norm-referenced tests do not assess for skills related to non-core content areas, like
social studies, because the instrument may not match the curriculum to which the student
has been exposed.
3. Expressive language skills are used in speaking and writing.
4. In order to determine a student’s level of academic functioning, one of the following tests
might be used: achievement, aptitude, diagnostic, cognitive, or adaptive behavior.
5. Aptitude tests are designed specifically to measure what a student has learned.
6. When administering a norm-referenced test, all subtests must be administered.
7. The Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-4 is a measure of expressive language.
8. The Wechsler Individual Achievement Test-III provides two ways of determining
disabilities: (1) the traditional ability-achievement discrepancy method, and (2) by
evaluating patterns of strengths and weaknesses.
9. Many assessments have multiple versions (e.g., version A and version B) in order to
allow students to be assessed multiple times in a fairly short amount of time.
10. Composite scores are the scores that are used to compare a student against grade or age
norms.