1. Social process theories hold that criminality is a function of human .
2. Of the 1.2 million students who drop out of school each year, most dropouts say they left either because they
did not like school or because .
3. Supportive, effective, and noncoercive parenting is referred to as .
4. The association between crime and divorce may be due to .
5. Today, more than percent of children live in single-parent homes.
6. According to Akers and Burgess, occurs when deviant and conventional behaviors are
learned and reinforced by interactions with others.
7. offers the principle that becoming a criminal is a learning process in which potential
delinquents and criminals master techniques that enable them to counterbalance or neutralize conventional value
and drift back and forth between illegitimate and conventional behavior.
8. occurs when an individual learns from the rewards and punishments associated with a
behavior.
9. Males are more likely to socialize with deviant peers than are females, and they are more likely to be deeply
influenced by these deviant peers. This finding explains how may explain the gender
difference in the crime rate.
10. Sutherland’s research on , professional theft, and intelligence led him to dispute the notion
that crime was a function of the inadequacy of people in the lower classes.
11. When parents or friends express their disapproval of crime, an attitude toward criminality occurs.
12. According to neutralization theory, juvenile delinquents between delinquent behaviors and
conforming behaviors.
13. are the morally tinged influences that have become entrenched in the culture but are
publicly condemned.
14. In his theory, Reckless argued that a strong self–image insulates a youth from the pressures and pulls
of criminogenic influences in the environment.
15. According to social bond theory, a person’s sensitivity to and interest in others is termed . Without
this element of social bond, psychologists believe a person becomes a psychopath and loses the ability to relate
coherently to the world.
16. Testing Labeling theory, former U.S. representative served New York’s ninth
congressional district from January 1999 until June 2011, and was a rising political star, until his “sexting” forced
his resignation.
17. When parents, friends, teachers, and law enforcement officials amplify negative labels via stigmatization, a
person may begin to reevaluate their identity. This process is referred to as the .
18. involves norm violations or crimes that have very little influence on the actor and that
can be quickly forgotten.
19. occurs when a deviant event comes to the attention of significant others or social–
control agents who apply a negative label.
20. are designed to remove both juvenile and adult offenders from the normal channels
of the criminal justice process by placing them in programs designed for rehabilitation.
21. The process of human development and enculturation is known as:
a. stigmatization. b. socialization.
c. drift. d. amplification.
22. Criminologists have long studied the critical elements of socialization to determine how they contribute to a
burgeoning criminal career. Prominent among these elements are the family, the peer group, and
.
a.
school
b. religion
c. employment d. athletic ability
23. Which of the following is the study of human interactions and relationships that emphasizes such issues as group
dynamics and socialization?
a. social learning theory b. psychological sociology
c. sociological social psychology d. social psychological syntality
24. One way in which schools perpetuate stigmatization is through , which identifies some students as
college-bound and others as academic underachievers or potential dropouts.
a. the track system b. athletics
c. the head start program d. prep courses
25. Approximately percent of youths with criminal fathers become chronic offenders.
a. 10 b. 37
c. 47 d. 53
26. Which of the following refers to the type of social structure that integrates children into families while giving
parents the ability to assert their individuality and regulate their own behavior
a. parental efficacy b. social ability
c. parent control d. organizational parenting
27. Theorists who believe that an individual’s socialization determines the likelihood of criminality adopt the
approach to human behavior.
a. social process b. social learning
c. social stigma d. social reaction
28. In every level of the social structure, youths who fall in with a “bad crowd” become more susceptible to:
a. rape. b. disdaining religion.
c. criminal behavior patterns. d. being assaulted by members of this peer group.
29. Social learning theory suggests that crime is a/an behavior
a. learned b. chronic
c. group d. isolated
30. Whose name do we associate with the prominent social learning theory of differential association?
a. Matza b. Sykes
c. Bell d. Sutherland
31. A criticism of learning theories is that they fail to adequately explain:
a. drug use.
b. spontaneous acts of violence.
c. subterranean behaviors.
d. minor crimes such as vandalism and shoplifting.
32. According to differential association theory, everyone has both favorable and unfavorable of/to crime.
a. meanings b. actions
c. social reactions d. definitions
33. When friends or parents demonstrate their disapproval of crime, what can occur?
a. aging-out and desistance b. disassociations
c. anomie d. definitions unfavorable toward criminality
34. Research on differential association theory finds that having delinquent friends:
a. has no effect on delinquency. b. decreases the likelihood of delinquency
c. increases the likelihood of having nondelinquent friends d. increases the likelihood of delinquency
35. The age of children when they first encounter definitions of criminality impacts the of an association.
a.
frequency
b. duration
c. priority d. intensity
36. The importance and prestige attributed to individuals or groups from whom the definitions are learned is the
element of an association.
a. priority b. duration
c. intensity d. frequency
37. When behavior is punished, this is referred to as:
a. direct conditioning. b. reconditioning.
c. labeling reinforcement. d. negative reinforcement.
38. The view, according to Akers, that both deviant and conventional behaviors are learned is called:
a. differential association theory. b. labeling theory.
c. social reaction theory. d. differential reinforcement theory.
39. According to differential reinforcement theory, what determines whether deviant or criminal behavior persists?
a. the degree to which living conditions
influence behavior
c. the degree to which it has been rewarded
or punished
b. the degree to which offenders are able to neutralize their
behaviors
d. the degree to which conventional ties to society are
broken or weakened
40. According to Matza, refers to the process of moving from one extreme of behavior to another.
Further, this helps to explain why a youth’s behavior may be law abiding sometimes and deviant at other times.
a. anomie b. drift
c. strain d. dramatization
41. Which technique of neutralization refers to youths denying that they are to blame for their delinquent acts?
a. deny injury b. condemn condemners
c. deny responsibility d. withhold responsibility
42. Which view states that becoming a criminal is a learning process in which potential delinquents master skills that
enable them to counterbalance conventional values and drift back and forth between illegitimate and
conventional behavior?
a. social reaction theory b. differential association theory
c. differential reinforcement theory d. neutralization theory
43. Control theories argue that noncriminal individuals have developed a that requires them to obey the
laws of society.
a. commitment to conformity b. tie to society
c. dedication to norms d. fear of criminal punishment
44. By denying the wrongfulness of an act, criminals are able to neutralize illegal behavior. This is known as:
a. denial of responsibility. b. denial of victim.
c. condemnation of the condemners. d. denial of injury.
45. Criminals sometimes neutralize wrongdoing by maintaining that the victim of crime “had it coming.” This is known
as:
a. denial of responsibility. b. denial of injury.
c. denial of victim. d. condemnation of the condemners.
46. Sykes and Matza base their neutralization theory on a variety of observations about criminals. Among these
observations is that:
a. criminals hope to plea bargain based upon dispelling their
responsibility for their offenses.
c. criminals sometimes voice a sense of guilt about their illegal
acts.
b. criminals view all victims as equal
prey for their offenses.
d. criminals show respect for their
“street smart” peers.
47. Novice criminals often argue that they are caught in the dilemma of being loyal to their own peer group while at
the same time attempting to abide by the rules of the larger society. This is known as:
a. denial of responsibility. b. appeal to higher loyalties.
c. condemnation of the condemners. d. denial of victim.
48. Numerous research efforts have supported the core principles of differential association. These generally show a
correlation between having deviant parents and friends, holding deviant attitudes, and .
a. committing deviant acts b. prison length
c. broken homes d. negative marriages
49. Behavior is reinforced by being either rewarded or punished while interacting with others; this is called
differential reinforcement or .
a. direct conditioning b. direct modeling
c. differential assumption d. indirect conditioning
50. The theory of presupposes a condition that allows people to explain away unconventional norms and
values by using such slogans as “I didn’t mean to do it” and “I didn’t really hurt anybody.”
a. neutralization b. reaction formation
c. social strain d. displacement
51. In his , pioneering control theorist Walter Reckless argued that a strong self–image insulates a youth from
the pressures and pulls of criminogenic influences in the environment.
a. containment theory b. normative group theory
c. social bond theory d. social reaction theory
52. The theory that links the onset of criminality to the weakening of the ties that bind people to society is:
a. social learning theory. b. differential association theory.
c. differential reinforcement theory. d. social bond theory.
53. Which is not an element of the social bond?
a. achievement b. containment
c. commitment d. involvement