54. Which social bond refers to how much an individual cares about what others think of them?
a. achievement b. attachment
c. commitment d. involvement
55. Which social bond refers to how much time an individual spends engaged in noncriminal activities?
a. achievement b. attachment
c. commitment d. involvement
56. Which social bond refers to how much a person has invested in conventional society or how much she has to
lose?
a. achievement b. attachment
c. commitment d. involvement
57. Which type of deviance is the result of the criminal label?
a. primary b. civil
c. delinquency d. secondary
58. One consequence of labeling is the concept of , which brings about a reassessment of one’s self-image
that reflects actual or perceived judgments made by others, such as parents.
a. reflected assessments b. reflected appraisals
c. reflected reactions d. reflected associations
59. Labeling theorists use a/an definition of crime.
a. legal b. perceived
c. interactionist d. consensus
60. According to social reaction theory, labels are believed to produce:
a. stigma b. primary deviance
c. differential associations d. anomie
61. When parents are alienated from their children, their negative labeling reduces their children’s self–image and
increases delinquency. This is known as:
a. reflected appraisals. b. reflective role–taking.
c. stigma. d. primary deviance.
62. Which of the following occurs when norm violations or crimes have very little influence on the actor and can be
quickly forgotten?
a. anomie b. primary deviance
c. secondary deviance d. stigma
63. Which of the following occurs when a deviant event comes to the attention of significant others or social-control
agents who then apply a negative label?
a. anomie b. primary deviance
c. secondary deviance d. stigma
64. More than 46 million Americans live below the poverty line.
a. True
b. False
65. Youths who grow up in households characterized by conflict and tension, and in which there is a lack of familial
love and support, are susceptible to the crime-promoting forces in the environment.
a. True
b. False
66. Bullies have children who bully others, and these “secondgeneration bullies” grow up to become fathers of
children who also become bullies.
a. True
b. False
67. Kids whose parents go to prison are much more likely to be at risk for delinquency than children of
nonincarcerated parents
a. True
b. False
68. Research conducted in both the United States and abroad shows that children raised in homes with one or both
parents absent may be prone to antisocial behavior.
a. True
b. False
69. Almost half of all female dropouts left school because they were pregnant or had already given birth.
a. True
b. False
70. Numerous studies show that there is no significant association between child maltreatment and delinquency, even
when taking into account gender, race, and class.
a. True
b. False
71. The fear of punishment is diminished among kids who hang with delinquent friends.
a. True
b. False
72. Children born into high-risk families, such as those with single teen mothers, can avoid delinquency if their friends
refrain from drug use and criminality.
a. True
b. False
73. More than 40 years ago in a now classic study, Travis Hirschi and Rodney Stark found that, contrary to
expectations, the association between religious attendance and belief and delinquent behavior patterns is
negligible and insignificant.
a. True
b. False
74. Social learning theory assumes that people are born good and learn to be bad.
a. True
b. False
75. Social control theory asserts that individuals are pushed into crime by an unfair and unequal society.
a. True
b. False
76. Social learning theories assume that people are born either “bad” or “good” and that their degree of criminality
can be unlearned with proper socialization.
a. True
b. False
77. Criminal techniques are learned, including the motives, drives, rationalizations, and attitudes associated with
crime.
a. True
b. False
78. Techniques of neutralization argue that delinquents are constantly and consistently engaged in delinquent
behavior and rarely ever engage in conforming behavior.
a. True
b. False
79. When young offenders claim their unlawful acts were simply not their fault, it is known as denial of responsibility.
a. True
b. False
80. When an offender views the world as a corrupt place with a dog-eat-dog code, it is known as denial of injury.
a. True
b. False
81. Youths who have strong self–concepts, who feel good about themselves, and who maintain a positive attitude
are able to resist the temptations of the street.
a. True
b. False
82. Some individuals have self–control, manifested through a strong moral sense, which renders them incapable of
hurting others and violating social norms.
a. True
b. False
83. Hirschi offers that the social bond a person maintains with society is comprised of four main elements:
attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief.
a. True
b. False
84. Labeling theories argue that intervention by the criminal justice system serves as a highly successful deterrent at
preventing subsequent delinquent acts.
a. True
b. False
85. Labeling theory recognizes that criminality is not a disease or pathological behavior
a. True
b. False
86. Negative labels, such as being called a troublemaker, stigmatize the recipients of these labels and reduce their
self–image. Those who accept or internalize these labels are more prone to engage in delinquent behaviors than
those who do not.
a. True
b. False
87. Parental labeling of children is extremely damaging because it may cause adolescents to seek deviant peers
whose behavior amplifies the effect of the labeling.
a. True
b. False
88. Despite their good intentions, stigma–reducing programs have not met with great success.
a. True
b. False
89. Social process theories have had a major influence on policymaking since the 1950s.
a. True
b. False
90. Describe the relationship between socialization and crime. What are the prominent elements of socialization that
contribute to a criminal career?
91. Explain the relationships between religion, belief, and criminal involvement.
92. Compare and contrast social learning, social control, and labeling theory for explaining crime.
93. Explain the link between peers and delinquency. How does social learning theory explain this link?
94. Identify and describe the principles of Sutherland’s differential association theory.
95. Explain Akers’ differential reinforcement theory and discuss how it is associated with, or employs, concepts
from Sutherland’s differential association.
96. Neutralization theory holds that offenders master techniques that enable them to neutralize conventional values.
Identify and discuss these techniques of neutralization.
97. How is one’s self–concept associated with conformity and the likelihood of engaging in crime?
98. Identify and explain the elements of social bond theory. What are some of the criticisms of social bonds?
99. Symbolic reaction theory (labeling theory) is rooted in symbolic interaction theory. Explain how labeling may
lead to a criminal career.
100. Discuss Lemert’s concept of primary and secondary deviance. Why does secondary deviance transform one’s
identity whereas primary deviance does not?