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CHAPTER 5
Defining, Measuring, and Managing Stress
Lecture Outline
I. The Nervous System and the Physiology of Stress
The nervous system is made-up of neurons (nerve cells) that provide internal communication
by releasing chemical neurotransmitters across the synaptic cleft (the space between neurons).
The billions of connections among neurons provide for complex actions. The nervous system is
divided into the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. The central
nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord, whereas all the other nerves in the body are
in the peripheral division (see Figure 5.1).
A. The Peripheral Nervous System
The peripheral nervous system is also divided into two divisions, the somatic nervous
system, which consists of the nerves that activate voluntary muscles in the body. The
B. The Neuroendocrine System
The endocrine system consists of ductless glands, and the neuroendocrine system
consists of endocrine glands controlled by the nervous system. These glands release
hormones that travel through the blood and act on target organs (see Figure 5.3).
1. The Pituitary Gland
2. The Adrenal Glands
The adrenal glands are located on top of the kidneys and contain two structures that
produce different hormones, the adrenal cortex (outer covering) and the adrenal
medulla (inner structure). The adrenocortical response occurs when ACTH stimulates the
adrenal cortex to secrete glucocorticoids, the most important of which is cortisol. The
adrenomedullary response is activated by the sympathetic nervous system and secretes
catecholamines, including epinephrine and norepinephrine.
C. The Physiology of the Stress Reaction
The stress reaction mobilizes body resources in emergency situations. One route occurs
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Taylor and her colleagues have proposed that this “fight or flight” model may be more
appropriate for men; women may manage stress through a “tend and befriend” strategy.
II. Theories of Stress
Hans Selye and Richard Lazarus proposed influential theories of stress.
A. Selye’s View
Selye’s theory defined stress as a nonspecific or generalized response to a variety of
environmental stressors. Whenever the body encounters a disruptive stimulus, it mobilizes
itself in a generalized attempt to adapt to that stimulus.
1. The General Adaptation Syndrome
2. Evaluation of Selye’s View
Selye concentrated on the physiological aspects of stress, downplaying the
1. Psychological Factors
Lazarus held that people are harmed by negative life events only if they perceive
2. Appraisal
Lazarus and his associates recognized three kinds of appraisal—primary, secondary,
and reappraisal. Primary appraisal is one’s initial judgment of an event, which may be
seen as (1) potentially harmful, (2) threatening or damaging to self-esteem, or (3)
personally challenging. Secondary appraisal is one’s perceived ability to cope with harm,
3. Vulnerability
Stress is most likely to be aroused when people are vulnerable; that is, when they
4. Coping
Coping involves our constantly changing efforts to manage both internal and external
demands that are appraised as taxing or exceeding our resources. Coping is enhanced by
such resources as health, energy, high self-efficacy, problem-solving skills, social skills,
and social support.
III. Measurement of Stress
The usefulness of stress measures rests on their ability to consistently predict some
established criterion—for example, illness.
A. Methods of Measurement
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Stress has been measured by several methods, but most fall under two groups: (1)
physiological measures and (2) self-reports, which may be either life events scales or daily
hassles scales.
1. Physiological Measures
Blood pressure, heart rate, galvanic skin response, respiration rate, and biochemical
2. Life Events Scales
Most life events scales are patterned after the Holmes and Rahe Social Readjustment
Rating Scale, an instrument that emphasizes change in a person’s life. The scale lists 43
life events arranged in rank order from most to least stressful. Respondents check the
items they have experienced during a recent period, usually the previous 6 to 24 months.
Other stress inventors include the Undergraduate Stress Questionnaire (USQ). The
USQ is a self-report similar to the SRRS in that it provides a list of sources of stress and
asks college students to check the ones that have happened to them during the past two
weeks. Most items are hassles rather than major life events.
3. Everyday Hassles Scales
Lazarus pioneered scales that measure daily hassles rather than major life events. The
original Daily Hassles Scale assumes that only unpleasant events (hassles) can be
stressful; pleasant events (uplifts) may help reduce stress and even promote health. A
companion measure was the Uplifts Scale, made up of items that might make a person
feel good. Both scales emphasized the person’s view of the event. Later, Lazarus and his
colleagues published the revised Hassles and Uplifts Scale, a shorter scale that allows
participants to see an event as either a hassle or uplift. Specialized versions of hassles
scales have also been developed.
B. Reliability and Validity of Stress Measures
IV. Sources of Stress
Many sources of stress exist and can be organized into cataclysmic events, life events, and
daily hassles.
A. Cataclysmic Events
Certain unique and powerful events require major adaptive responses. These events affect
Defining, Measuring, and Managing Stress
Cataclysmic events occur to some people, but everyone experiences life events that
require change. These events affect individuals rather than groups and tend to take place
across time rather than suddenly. Divorce and job loss are examples of such life events, but
so is crime victimization, which is a life event that produces stress.
C. Daily Hassles
Daily hassles are events that occur as part of everyday life that may arise from the
physical or psychological environment.
1. Daily Hassles and the Physical Environment
Sources of stress such as noise, pollution, crowding, and fear of crime are associated
2. Daily Hassles and the Psychosocial Environment
Discrimination is a common experience for African Americans in the United States,
creating daily hassles in the community and at work. Other ethnic groups and women
also experience stress due to discrimination, which may affect cardiovascular health.
Other situations that produce stress at work include jobs with high demands and low
control, such as food servers and middle-level managers. Workplace stress may also
affect personal relationships, producing conflict between work and family. Finding a
balance between work and family is a challenge for both women and men. Family
relationships are important because they are both sources of stress and sources of support.
V. Coping with Stress
A. Coping is the term applied to strategies people use to manage distressing problems and
emotions in their lives.
1. Personal Resources that Influence Coping
Folkman and Lazarus listed resources that affect coping, which included health and
energy, positive beliefs about the ability to cope, problem-solving skills, material
resources, social skills, and social support.
Social support refers to a variety of material and emotional supports that people
receive from others. Social support differs from social contacts and social networks in
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allowed to assume even small amounts of personal control and responsibility, they live
longer and healthier lives.
B. Personal Coping Strategies
Coping strategies may be classified in many ways, but one approach divides them
VI. Behavioral Interventions for Managing Stress
Some people classify behavioral techniques as alternative treatment or mind-body
medicine, but psychologists focus on the behavioral aspects of these treatments and consider
them part of psychology.
A. Relaxation Training
Modern uses of relaxation training can be traced to Edmond Jacobson who developed
progressive muscle relaxation during the 1930s.
1. What Is Relaxation Training?
2. How Effective Is Relaxation Training?
B. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy
Cognitive behavioral therapy has roots in both cognitive and behavioral therapy
approaches. Like cognitive therapy, this approach assumes that thoughts are important for
behavior. Like behavior modification, cognitive behavioral therapy strives to make changes
in the environment and in reinforcement contingencies to affect behavior.
1. What Is Cognitive Behavioral Therapy?
2. How Effective Is Cognitive Behavioral Therapy?
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C. Emotional Disclosure
James Pennebaker and his associates have demonstrated the therapeutic value of
catharsis, that is, expressing emotions through talking or writing about them.
1. What Is Emotional Disclosure?
2. How Effective Is Emotional Disclosure?
Exploring Health on the Web
Stress is a topic covered on many websites, including coverage of background and research on
stress as well as resources to help people cope.
Sheldon Cohen’s website provides numerous scales of stress and social support, as well
as links to relevant research articles that use the scales.
Suggested Activities
Personal Health Profile — Assessing Stress
You can have your students complete the Undergraduate Stress Questionnaire
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They should add this score to their Personal Health Profiles. They should be able to use
the list of stressful events in the USQ to do an additional analysis by ranking the events that they
checked. The USQ scores one point for each event, but your students may feel that this scoring
procedure does not adequately capture the magnitude of their stress because some events are
more stressful than others. For comparison purposes, you can tell students that that the average
undergraduate reports 18 of the 83 events on the list. However, women on average report nearly
4 more stressful events than males. Prior research suggests that this gender difference is mostly
due to females reporting more school-related stress than males.
Another possible use for the responses to the USQ is to instruct your students to group
the checked items by type of stress, which may lead them to a more precise analysis of the areas
of their lives that are producing stress. For example, if a student checked several items related to
school but few or none concerning relationships, then this information could lead the student to a
better understanding of the stresses in his or her life. The results from another stress assessment
may be helpful in making these divisions, and dozens are available on the Internet. One
Aftermath of Victimization
Victimization and fear of victimization represent important sources of stress for people
from childhood to old age. Thus, community, school, and domestic violence are a major source
of stress. Your students can explore the varieties and the effects of victimization by gathering
information on this topic from research and popular media sources.
Use this information to consider the developmental impact of victimization. Divide your
students into groups and assign each group a developmental period during which victimization
can occur (such as childhood, adolescence, adulthood, old age). Then, assign these groups the
task of finding the types of violence most often associated with this developmental period. Have
all groups determine what researchers have found about the health effects of victimization and
urge them to consider some remedies for this major social problem.
Analyzing Job Stress
Many students are employed (or have been at some time in their lives), so they have
some experience with workplace stress. The types of jobs typical for students meet the
description of high-demand/low-control jobs that are the most stressful. Instruct your students to
perform an analysis of the demands of their jobs and the amount of control or decision latitude
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they have on these jobs. Then, have them compare their present job with the one they believe
they will get when they finish their college degree. Try to keep their expectations for these future
jobs realistic, although these occupations will likely be much more favorable in terms of
demands and control.
Mapping Environmental Sources of Stress
You may wish to have your students interview people about their perceptions of
environmental sources of stress, including crowding, pollution, and noise. Each student should
interview at least 10 people concerning their perception of the importance of crowding,
pollution, and noise as well as how much these three stressors personally annoy each person. The
Observing Coping
Arrange a class study in which your students act as observers gathering data about coping
techniques. First, decide what behaviors you and your students want to examine and prepare a
data collection system or instrument that will allow students to collect comparable information.
Next, allow each student to choose a situation in which people experience stress, trying to include
a variety of situations (conflict with another person, problem at work, sleep deprivation, trouble
finding a parking place, too little class preparation, and so forth). Then, allow your students to
complete the observation, compile, and analyze the data. One possible analysis is a division of
coping into emotion-focused or problem-focused strategies, but other analyses are also possible.
Demonstrating Coping Techniques
The behavioral management strategies of relaxation, emotional disclosure, and even
cognitive behavioral therapy lend themselves fairly well to classroom demonstrations. Many
people who teach courses in health psychology know these techniques and can do classroom
demonstrations themselves. A demonstration from a practitioner who uses these techniques can
be even more interesting for students, because they can ask questions about effectiveness,
preferences of the practitioner, training, and so forth. Many practitioners use all these techniques
and can arrange a demonstration of all three. Therefore, someone who uses these coping
techniques in a practice that includes stress management can be a good choice for guest lecturer.
Coping with Stress and Assessing Coping Styles
Have students think of an event that they have experienced that is stressful and talk about
how they experience stress physically (nervousness, appetite loss/gain, etc.). Then ask how they
cope with such a stressor and what have been effective and ineffective methods. Next, students
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could identify their coping style by taking the following scale and seeing how often they use the
following coping styles: active-cognitive; active-behavioral; avoidance.
Citation: Holahan, C. J., & Moos, R. H. (1987). Personal and contextual determinants of
coping strategies. Journal of personality and social psychology, 52(5), 946-955.
Lecture Topic: Are Pets Better than Friends?
“Pop quiz” stress demonstration
Pick an obscure fact from the text and do an in-class pop quiz on it at the start of lecture.
After about a minute or so of watching students sweat, fidget, and swear, ask them “Are you all
feeling stressed?”. Astute students will be the first to laugh; followed eventually by sighs of
relief by the rest of the class. Ask student then to describe the thoughts, feelings, and sensations
that they experienced. This is a good introduction to stress, can easily tie to an overview of
definitions of stress, as well as physiological reactions that accompany stress.
Journaling
Have students keep a journal for a few days where they simply write down thoughts or
feeling about their day and events in their day. Then have students share any kinds of physical or
psychological effects they noticed after a few days of journaling. Students may be interested in
learning the physiological and psychological effects that simply keeping a journal can have on
health and well-being.
Citations: Pennebaker, J. W. (1993). Putting stress into words: Health, linguistic, and
therapeutic implications. Behaviour research and therapy, 31(6), 539-548.
Pennebaker, J. W., & Seagal, J. D. (1999). Forming a story: The health benefits of
narrative. Journal of clinical psychology, 55(10), 1243-1254.
Technology and Stress
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Phone technology is also being utilized to help people cope with stress and live happier
lives. One iPhone app, entitled “Let Panic Go,” is available for download at the iTunes store,
Neither app is free, but both are relatively inexpensive. The app could be used for week and then
students could report on whether they believed the app helped them decrease feelings of stress
(or increase feelings of happiness). Students could even compare using the “Live Happy” app
for a week versus journaling for a week, citing the advantages and disadvantages of each
method.
Create a “stress log”
For 3 days, have students keep a log of things that cause them stress. Then have students
apply Lazarus’s model to explain how these events caused feelings of stress. How did feelings of
control affect perception of stress? What kinds of things did the student do to try to reduce the
stress? Did they work?
Checklist measures
Have students complete measures of optimism (LOT-R), social support, stress, etc., to
see how they fare on the relevant scales. This can be a useful activity when discussing each of
the relevant psychosocial factors in class. If there is more than one scale that reportedly measures
the same concept, then have students discuss differences and similarities between scales.
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Video Recommendations
How Happy Can You Be? (2006) is a documentary, where the filmmaker interviews a number of
psychologists, neuroscientists, and other academic researchers to better understand happiness.
From Films for the Humanities & Sciences:
9/11 and Beyond: Coping Strategies for Trauma and Stress (2003) features experts on trauma
explaining the impact of cataclysmic events and how people can find meaning and positive
outcomes, even after trauma.
Stress Hurts! A Wake-Up Call for Women (2001) was produced by ABC News and examines
gender differences in stress, harmful effects of stress, and coping. Dr. Nancy Snyderman offers
advice.
Happier Women: 25 Ways to Reduce Stress Video Clip Collection (2008) includes a collection of
25 video clips that provide tips on coping and stress reduction.
Stress Management (2000) is a 10-minute program that demonstrates that stress, when managed,
can be a positive factor in students’ lives but when not managed effectively, can be harmful.
Videos from the Web:
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series hosted by Harvard University’s Dan Gilbert. This series examines social relationships,
coping with depression and anxiety, and how to become more positive, resilient individuals.
• “Family, Friends & Lovers” (Episode 1) – Focuses on the importance of social
relationships.
• “Facing Our Fears” (Episode 2) – Focuses on negative emotions and how to best manage
them.
• “Rethinking Happiness” (Episode 3) – Features a nice overview of stress, resilience,
positive emotion, and meditation.
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Individual nerve cells are called
a. synapses.
b. protons.
c. neurons.
Defining, Measuring, and Managing Stress
d. ganglions.
2. The space between neurons is called
a. an interneuron.
b. an intraneuron.
c. a neurotransmitter.
d. the synaptic cleft.
3. The central nervous system consists of the
a. heart and the blood vessels.
b. brain and the spinal cord.
c. brain and the blood vessels.
d. somatic and the autonomic nervous systems.
4. The peripheral nervous system is divided into two parts:
a. the afferent and efferent branches.
b. the spinal cord and brain.
c. the spinal cord and parasympathetic nervous system.
d. the somatic and autonomic nervous systems.
5. The autonomic nervous system has two subdivisions:
a. afferents and efferents.
b. central and peripheral nervous systems.
c. the brain and the spinal cord.
d. sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.
6. The sympathetic nervous system
a. is a division of the parasympathetic nervous system.
b. mobilizes the resources of the body during stressful or emergency situations.
c. is activated at an elevated rate during the exhaustion stage.
d. all of these are correct.
7. Which of the following responses is NOT part of sympathetic activation?
a. increased heart rate
b. increased blood pressure
c. increased digestive system activity
d. decreased salivary activity
Defining, Measuring, and Managing Stress
8. Activation of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system produces ____ in
heart rate, and activation of the parasympathetic division produces ____.
a. increases . . . additional increases in heart rate
b. increases . . . decreases in heart rate
c. decreases . . . increases in blood pressure
d. decreases . . . additional decreases in heart rate
9. The term that refers to the body’s maintenance of an appropriate level of activation under
changing circumstances is
a. “fight or flight” response.
b. allostatic load.
c. allostasis.
d. coping.
10. When the physiological stress response has been active for a prolonged amount of time,
______ may occur.
a. allostatic load
b. survival
c. “fight or flight” response
d. coping
11. ________, or the wear and tear of the body, may be responsible for a number of health
problems, such as high blood pressure, insulin resistance, and decline in cognitive
functioning.
a. Allostatic load
b. Survival
c. “Fight or flight” response
d. Coping
12. The hormone ________ may be responsible for women’s stress response being
characterized as “tend and befriend” rather than “fight or flight.”
a. adrenocorticotropic hormone
b. cortisol
c. norepinephrine
d. oxytocin
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13. If the activity level of the sympathetic nervous system increases, the level of activity in
the parasympathetic nervous system
a. decreases.
b. increases.
c. doubles.
d. remains constant.
14. The two principal neurotransmitters of the autonomic nervous system are
a. serotonin and dopamine.
b. acetylcholine and norepinephrine.
c. epinephrine and dopamine.
d. the same as the principle neurotransmitters of the central nervous system.
15. The endocrine system consists of
a. a system of ductless glands within the brain and spinal cord.
b. a system of ducted glands in the digestive system.
c. a system of both ducted and ductless glands oriented toward reproduction.
d. a system of ductless glands distributed throughout the body.
16. What is the difference between glands of the endocrine and neuroendocrine systems?
a. Glands in the neuroendocrine system are controlled by the nervous system.
b. Glands in the endocrine system are controlled by the autonomic nervous system
not the sympathetic nervous system.
c. Glands in the neuroendocrine system secrete hormones, but those in the endocrine
system do not.
d. Glands in the endocrine system secrete hormones, but those in the neuroendocrine
system do not.
17. Which chemical substances of the endocrine system serve functions similar to the
neurotransmitters of the nervous system?
a. lymph nodes
b. hormones
c. arterioles
d. efferents
18. The adrenal glands are located
a. in the midbrain.
b. in the forebrain.
c. just above the stomach.
d. just above the kidneys.
19. The adrenal glands are an important part of the _______ system.
a. cardiovascular
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b. nervous
c. immune
d. digestive
20. The class of chemicals containing epinephrine and norepinephrine is called
a. acetylcholines.
b. catecholamines.
c. neurotransmitters.
d. glucocorticoids.
21. Epinephrine
a. is produced by the pituitary gland.
b. is another word for norepinephrine.
c. is secreted exclusively by the sympathetic nervous system.
d. is so strongly associated with stress that it has been used as an index of stress.
22. During periods of extreme stress, the _________ helps mobilize the body’s resources for
the “fight or flight” response.
a. somatic nervous system
b. sympathetic nervous system
c. parasympathetic nervous system
d. digestive system
23. In recent years, some observers have criticized the “fight or flight” hypothesis on the
grounds that
a. it defies common sense.
b. it is inconsistent with the behaviors of nonhuman animals.
c. it is valid for adults but not for children.
d. it is more valid for men than for women.
24. The person(s) who proposed the view of stress as a nonspecific response was
a. Selye.
b. Lazarus.
c. Meichenbaum.
d. Dohrenwend.
25. Stress has been considered as
a. a stimulus.
b. a response.