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Chapter 3: Early Theories: The Foundation of Modern Leadership
Multiple Choice Questions
1. In the nineteenth century, the study of leadership relied on:
a. rigorous scientific studies
b. intuition and description
c. observation of the situation
d. the trait approach to understand leaders
2. The modern scientific study of leadership can be divided into three eras. These are:
a. trait, behavior, contingency
b. charismatic, visionary, exemplary
c. case studies, research, theory building
d. personality, event-based, complex analysis
3. The belief that leaders are born rather than made is part of which approach to leadership?
a. scientific
b. contingency
c. case study
d. trait
4. Philosophers such as Thomas Carlyle, William James, and Galton believed that:
a. followers are not important
b. leaders and managers are different people
c. innate qualities shape behavior and personality
d. leaders are the result of their trait and their environment
5. The trait approach to leadership suggests that:
a. leaders have special innate qualities
b. leadership traits are clearly visible
c. traits are based on social class
d. traits cannot be measured
6. Which of the following factors helped in the development of the trait approach to leadership?
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a. the need to find leaders during World War II
b. the development of personality testing
c. the use of behavioral surveys to measure traits
d. access to military leaders
7. The results of the trait approach to leadership have established that:
a. leaders are born not made
b. followers and leaders have different personality traits
c. few, if any traits define leaders
d. being sociable and intelligent is a requirement for leadership
8. Which of the following is not one of the traits typically associated with leadership?
a. sociability
b. thoughtfulness
c. sense of humor
d. originality
9. The results of the trait approach to leadership indicate that:
a. traits should not be used in leadership
b. leadership cannot be studied outside of the situation or context
c. some traits are excellent predictors of leadership effectiveness
d. traits are unreliable and invalid measures
10. Which of the following factors contributed to the development of the behavior approach to
leadership?
a. the need to find leaders during World War II
b. the development of personality testing
c. the use of behavioral surveys to measure traits
d. access to military leaders
11. Which one of the following is one of the benefits of the behavior approach to leadership?
a. behaviors are more broadly defined than traits
b. behaviors are stable and predictable
c. behaviors can be measured and changed
d. behaviors are more interesting than traits
12. The behavior approach to leadership has several advantages. They include all but one of the
following:
a. behaviors can be observed more objectively than traits
b. behaviors can be measured more precisely than traits
c. behaviors can be taught, whereas traits are innate
d. behaviors are richer and more complex than traits
13. In the early work on leader behavior, Lewin and his associates relied on which of the following three
leadership behaviors?
a. charismatic, participative, directive
b. accommodating, conflicting, compromising
c. democratic, autocratic, laissez-faire
d. structuring, consideration, instrumental
14. The major shortcoming of Lewin’s early research on leader behavior was:
a. it was not clear which behavior was most effective
b. the behaviors were difficult to define clearly
c. the researchers could not measure the leader behaviors consistently
d. only task behavior was shown to improve performance
15. Based on the early behavior research conducted by Lewin and his associates, managers who provide
information but little guidance to their followers are likely to have:
a. the best level of performance
b. frustrated and disorganized groups
c. highly empowered followers who can make their own decisions
d. relaxed and cohesive groups
16. Studies conducted at _____ are among the best-known behavioral approaches to leadership.
a. Harvard University
b. Ohio State University
c. The Center for Creative Leadership
d. The military
17. The two primary leadership behaviors that are still in use are:
a. laissez-faire and charismatic motivation
b. autocratic and democratic
c. visionary and practical
d. consideration and initiation of structure
18. The ________ is one of the primary measures of leader behavior.
a. Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire
b. Behaviorally Anchored Scale
c. Leader Behavior Scale
d. Least Preferred Co-worker
19. Terry is a manager who believes in treating employees as equals, is friendly and approachable, and
puts the work group’s ideas into operation. Terry is using which leadership behavior?
a. people management
b. consideration
c. motivation
d. conflict resolution
20. Ragu makes sure that his work unit knows what is expected, schedules the work and sets deadlines,
and assigns people to different tasks. Ragu is:
a. being autocratic
b. initiating structure
c. preventing his employees from being independent
d. a manager but not a leader
21. If you are most concerned about employee satisfaction and loyalty you should demonstrate :
a. authority
b. laissez-faire
c. initiation structure
d. consideration
22. The contingency approach to understanding leadership started:
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a. in the 1960s
b. during the scientific revolution
c. during World War II
d. when the trait approach failed to yield results
23. The primary assumption of the contingency approach to leadership is:
a. leadership depends on culture
b. what works depends on the situation
c. behavior of leaders is contingent on their personality
d. leadership effectiveness is contingent on the role of followers
24. Misha has been effective because he is able to use different behaviors in different situations to
motivate his followers and accomplish the tasks. Misha is relying on which leadership approach?
a. behavior approach
b. contingency approach
c. change approach
d. individual approach
25. The first researcher to implement the contingency approach and develop a leadership theory based on
the approach was:
a. Stogdill
b. Fiedler
c. House
d. Vroom
26. According to the Contingency Model:
a. if the leader’s style matches the situation, the leader will be effective.
b. if followers respect the leader, the leader will be effective.
c. when the leader has power, he/she will be more effective.
d. if the leader is trained and experienced, the group will be most effective.
27. The LPC stands for:
a. Leader Personality Construct.
b. Leader Personal Contingency.
c. Least Preferred Coworker.
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d. Lower Performance Conditions.
28. When asked to evaluate a coworker she does not like working with, Tatiana has a very negative view
of that person. She describes him as incompetent, cold, and untrustworthy. Based on this
description, Tatiana is most likely:
a. a low LPC
b. a harsh person
c. a high LPC
d. a middle LPC
29. A low LPC leader draws self-esteem from:
a. power.
b. getting along with people.
c. managing conflict.
d. accomplishing tasks well.
30. A high LPC leader draws self-esteem from:
a. power.
b. getting along with people.
c. managing conflict.
d. accomplishing tasks well.
31. When Paul’s group fails, he tends to be harsh in judging his subordinates and tends to blame and
punish them. Paul is most likely:
a. a low LPC
b. a harsh leader
c. a high LPC
d. a middle LPC
32. When asked to evaluate a coworker she does not like working with, Nilanjan describes the person in
generally positive terms, judging them to be loyal, sincere, and warm. Based on this description,
Nilanjan is most likely:
a. a low LPC
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b. a kind person
c. a high LPC
d. a middle LPC
33. Fiedler considers the LPC to be a _________ that people _________.
a. stable characteristic; cannot change
b. behavior; can learn to change
c. skill; can be trained to do
d. value; learn early in life
34. ____________ is another term used to describe middle LPC individuals.
a. Highly conforming
b. Task-oriented
c. Relationship-oriented
d. Socio-independent
35. According to Fiedler, there are several factors that describe the leadership situation. Which of the
following is not part of situation?
a. leader-member relations
b. task structure
c. follower maturity
d. position power
36. According to Fiedler, __________ is the most important factor in any leadership situation.
a. leader-member relations
b. task structure
c. follower maturity
d. position power
37. According to Fiedler, the second most important factor in any leadership situation is _________.
a. leader-member relations
b. task structure
c. follower maturity
d. position power
38. According to Fiedler, the least influential element of the leadership situation is_________.
a. leader-member relation
b. task structure
c. follower maturity
d. position power
39. Nader is the manager of a group of highly cohesive individuals whose primary job is to reconcile the
budgets from other divisions. Based on Fiedler’s classification, Nader faces which kind of situation?
a. Typical corporate management
b. High situational control
c. High managerial power
d. Mid-level control
40. According to the Contingency Model, _________ will be effective in high and low situational
control, while _________ will be effective in moderate situational control.
a. task-motivated; relationship-motivated
b. relationship-motivated; task-motivated
c. middle LPC; low LPC
d. high LPC; middle LPC
41. According to the Contingency Model, task-motivated leaders will be most effective in which type of
situation?
a. high-control
b. moderate control
c. low control
d. all situations
42. According to the Contingency Model, relationship-motivated leaders will be most effective in which
type of situation?
a. high-control
b. moderate control
c. low control
d. all situations
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43. Anwar is a task-motivated leader who is in a high situational control environment. Based on Fiedler’s
Contingency Model, he is likely to:
a. be tense, overbearing, and over controlling.
b. be confident, considerate, and focused on removing obstacles.
c. be considerate, open to suggestions and concerned with resolving conflicts.
d. be directive, serious, and with little concern for others.
44. Sally is a relationship-motivated leader who is in a moderate situational control environment. Based
on Fiedler’s Contingency Model, she is likely to:
a. be tense, overbearing, and over controlling.
b. be confident, considerate, and focused on removing obstacles.
c. be considerate, open to suggestions and concerned with resolving conflicts.
d. be directive, serious, and with little concern for others.
45. Hiro is leading a group of volunteers that is facing considerable difficulty. The members do not get
along, they are doing a task with no structure that no one quite knows how to do. All of Hiro’s
efforts at building cohesion have been wasted and he is frustrated and has decided to leave his
followers to fend for themselves. Based on this description, Hiro is most likely:
a. a consultative leader
b. a socio-independent leader
c. a relationship-oriented leader
d. a leader with task skills
46. Your company is planning to use Fiedler’s Contingency Model to train its leaders and managers.
Based on the assumptions and finding of the theory, what will be the focus of the training?
a. Teaching leaders the different decision styles they need to be effective in different
situations.
b. Getting leaders to be more sensitive to the needs of their followers so they can use them
as resources when needed.
c. Train leaders to remove obstacles on their followers’ path.
d. Helping leader to be aware of their style and understand the situations they face.
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47. John has just come back from a leadership training based on Fiedler’s Contingency Model. He has
very much enjoyed the training and is planning to implement what he has learned. Which one of the
following is John likely to do?
a. He will focus on gaining more experience in the job that he is doing so that he can
increase his sense of control.
b. He will make sure that he has the power he needs to implement his decisions.
c. He will focus on understanding and changing his leadership situation when he is out of
match.
d. He will empower his employees any chance he gets and include them in decision-making.
48. Which of the following is not one of the practical implications of the Contingency Model for
managers?
a. Leaders must understand their style and the situation.
b. Leaders should focus on changing the situation.
c. Leaders can compensate for task ambiguity by getting more training.
d. Leaders can learn to change their style to fit different situations.
49. Which of the following principles is the basis for the Normative Decision Model?
a. Empowerment is always effective.
b. Western employees expect to participate in decision making.
c. Groups are wasteful and inefficient.
d. Employee motivation results from the leader removing obstacles.
50. According to group dynamics research that is the basis for the Normative Decision Model:
a. groups make better decisions.
b. well trained groups make faster decisions than individuals.
c. leaders get better results when they rely on groups.
d. participation in decision-making leads to commitment.
51. According to the Normative Decision Model, leaders should adjust their decision style depending on
__________ and _____________.
a. their personal style; the situation
b. the followers’ maturity; goals of the organization
c. the need for a quality decision; likelihood that employee will accept the decision
d. the complexity of the task the group is doing; the degree to which the group agrees with
the leader
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52. Which of the following is not one of decision styles used in the Normative Decision Model?
a. Autocratic
b. Individual
c. Consultative
d. Group
53. In the _________ decision style, the leader makes the decision alone, with or without information
from the group.
a. autocratic
b. individual
c. consultative
d. group
54. In the __________ decision style, the leader asks for information and ideas from the group members
either individually or as group.
a. autocratic
b. individual
c. consultative
d. group
55. In the _________ decision style, the leader exchanges ideas with followers who are equal partners in
the decision process.
a. autocratic
b. individual
c. consultative
d. group
56. Which of the following is not one of the several contingency factors in the Normative Decision
Model?
a. Leader information
b. Goal congruence
c. Goal conflict
d. Employee conflict
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57. When there is no quality requirement and employee commitment is not needed, the most appropriate
leader decision style is:
a. autocratic
b. individual
c. consultative
d. group
58. Jade is new at her managerial position and does not have a lot of technical expertise. The quality of
her team’s work is very important to the organization and the commitment of her employees is
essential. Based on the Normative Decision Model, Jade should use __________ as her primary
decision style.
a. autocratic
b. individual
c. consultative
d. group
59. When the employees’ commitment is essential, they generally agree with the goals of the
organization, and the leader does not have enough information, the most appropriate decision style is:
a. autocratic
b. consultative
c. delegation
d. individual
60. The two weaknesses of the Normative Decision Making are:
a. poorly define decision styles and poor application.
b. it is too complex and it assumes leader can easily change styles.
c. it has weak theoretical bases and the decision styles are poorly defined.
d. a simplistic view of leadership and low validity of measures.
61. Carlos has decided to implement the principles of the Normative Decision Model to managing his
team. In order to be successful, he must do all of the following, except:
a. allow his followers to participate in all decisions.
b. understand the situation and the decision style options.
c. pay attention to followers’ needs.
d. be aware of the followers’ level of commitment.
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62. The Path-Goal Theory suggests that the role of the leader is to clear paths for followers allowing them
to:
a. fulfill their needs and reach goals
b. function without their leader when necessary
c. build a cohesive team
d. have time to address interpersonal conflicts
63. Which motivation theory is one of the concepts included in Path-Goal Theory?
a. Maslow’s need hierarchy
b. Goal setting
c. Expectancy theory
d. ARG theory
64. According the Path-Goal Theory, the leader must motivate followers by:
a. strengthening the links among effort, performance, and outcomes
b. encouraging them to do their best
c. encouraging employee centered goals
d. being both a supportive and a task-oriented leader who focuses on followers
65. In Path-Goal Theory, ____________ and ___________ determine which leadership behavior should
be used.
a. power/leader-follower relationships
b. nature of the task/follower characteristics
c. effort/performance
d. group factors/organizational factors
66. The major weakness of the Path-Goal Theory is:
a. not enough research
b. poor measures of leaders behavior
c. unreliable hypotheses
d. inability to measure motivation
67. Path-Goal Theory makes a unique contribution to leadership theory by:
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a. including follower’s perception of the task.
b. assuming that leaders can’t change their behavior.
c. presenting the concept of in-group.
d. by including culture in leadership.
68. Suzanna would like to improve her leadership effectiveness using Path-Goal theories of leadership.
She should:
a. identify her in-group and out-group and how followers get in each group.
b. make sure that she has enough power.
c. understand her followers’ need for autonomy and their perception of the task.
d. make sure she is comfortable with a variety of decision styles.
69. Which of the following is not one of the categories of factors that reduce the impact of leadership?
a. Follower characteristics
b. Task characteristics
c. Organizational characteristics
d. Leader characteristics
70. Employees are not likely to need their leader to provide structuring behavior if:
a. they have information about the task through other means
b. if they do not get along with the leader
c. if the leader does not have enough power
d. if the leader is not located in the same place as the employees
71. Having a clear task that provides direct feedback to the follower serves as a substitute for
___________.
a. leader consideration behaviors
b. organizational policies
c. leader structuring behaviors
d. leader’s lack of power
72. A cohesive team can act as ________ for the leader’s _________ behavior.
a. neutralizer; conflict resolution
b. substitute; structuring
c. substitute; team building
d. neutralizer; consideration
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73. The Alpha team is located in a building that is far apart from the rest of the organization, including
the team’s manager who is located over 100 miles away. The physical distance between the manager
and followers acts as a __________ for leader ___________.
a. substitute; consideration
b. neutralizer; consideration
c. neutralizer; responsibility
d. substitute; lack of power
74. Ravi would like to use the substitute for leadership concepts to improve his leadership effectiveness.
Which of the following should he focus on?
a. Increase the distance between himself and his followers.
b. Decrease his power.
c. Put in place rigid organizational policies.
d. Increase his team’s cohesion.
75. The substitutes for leadership model has increasing applications to many organizations as they:
a. implement the use teams.
b. select leaders with certain traits.
c. teach leaders to be both considerate and provide structure.
d. move to other cultures.
76. An implication of the leadership substitutes model for leadership training is to:
a. train the leader to empower followers.
b. teach the leader to change situations.
c. focus the leader on acquiring power.
d. help the leader manage relationships with followers.
77. The Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) model of leadership is based on the premise that:
a. leadership is a relationship between leaders and each follower
b. leadership is an exchange process
c. leaders and followers must develop a relationship
d. leadership is a group phenomenon
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78. An earlier version of the Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) model was called:
a. the Leader-Member Relationship model
b. the vertical dyad linkage model
c. the transactional leadership model
d. the exchange relations model
79. According to Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) model, followers who are ___________ will have
the leader’s trust and be expected to perform and grow.
a. more intelligent
b. in the in-group
c. from the same culture
d. who ingratiate themselves with the leader
80. Attributional theories focus on explaining:
a. how we interpret the cause of behavior.
b. how we attribute power to others.
c. how we identify other people’s attributes.
d. the attributes of leaders.
81. There are two reasons why understanding attribution may be helpful in leadership situations. These
are:
a. evaluations and promotions
b. understanding internal and external causes of behavior
c. determining the cause of errors and taking corrective action
d. assessing performance and establishing rules
82. One of the factors in the leader’s attribution about followers’ action is:
a. the extent to which the follower’s action impacts the leader’s goal accomplishment
b. the leader’s personality style
c. the followers’ ability to set goals and stay on course
d. the organizational politics
83. Jiang Li has made a mistake in her work and has talked to her manager and apologized for her error.
She has always been a very good performer and done well at all of tasks that are assigned to her. Her
mistake does not impact anyone in her team. Based on research on attribution and leadership, her
manager is likely to:
a. fire Jiang Li.
b. blame Jiang Li for the mistake and hold her responsible.
c. let Jiang Li off easy and assume it was an honest error.
d. not do much; most managers know that employees can’t control everything.
84. Sandy has made an error in her work that has caused the loss of an important client. Although she did
not intend to do so, she got very defensive when her managers asked her what happened. Based on
research on attribution and leadership, her manager is likely to:
a. fire Sandy.
b. blame Sandy for the mistake and hold her responsible.
c. let Sandy off easy and assume the client was difficult.
d. not do much; most managers know that employees can’t control everything.
85. Leaders can help reduce the potential for biases in their attributions about followers by doing which
of the following?
a. Relying on their intuition and experience.
b. Using traits to evaluate followers.
c. Awareness and recognition of biases.
d. Distancing themselves from followers.
86. According to LMX, the followers who have a high quality relationship with their leader are likely to
do all but one of the following:
a. perform well
b. be satisfied with their job
c. be carefully watched so that they make mistakes
d. communicate often with their leader
87. Juan has had an excellent relationship with his boss who is grooming him to be his successor. In spite
of good performance, Juan makes a serious mistake in one of his projects. According to Leader–
Member Exchange (LMX), what is Juan’s boss most likely to do?
a. be highly disappointed in Juan
b. punish Juan very harshly
c. take the blame for Juan’s mistake