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c. ex post facto design
d. descriptive research
36. The cause of a disease or condition is most readily suggested by
a. case control studies.
b. experimental designs.
c. correlational studies.
d. a single-participant design.
37. In an experimental design that investigates the effects of a low carbohydrate diet on
weight loss, diet would be
a. the independent variable.
b. the dependent variable.
c. an extraneous variable.
d. a placebo.
38. In an experimental design that investigates the effects of weight loss on heart rate in
middle-aged men, the dependent variable would be
a. stress.
b. heart rate.
c. age.
d. gender.
39. Which of the following is part of an ex post facto study but not an experimental study?
a. manipulation of an independent variable
b. control of extraneous variables
c. measurement of a dependent variable
d. inclusion of a subject variable
40. A study comparing smokers and nonsmokers on their scores on a personality inventory is
most likely to be
a. an ex post facto design.
b. an experimental design.
c. a correlational study.
d. a retrospective study.
41. The branch of medicine that investigates the factors that contribute to the occurrence of
diseases within a population is
a. psychoneuroimmunology.
b. behavioral medicine.
c. behavioral health.
d. epidemiology.
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42. A risk factor is any characteristic or condition that
a. occurs with a lower frequency in people with a disease than in people free from
that disease.
b. occurs with a greater frequency in people with a disease than in people free from
that disease.
c. is known to cause a disease.
d. is a measure of the dependent variable in an experimental design.
43. Prospective and retrospective studies are both considered:
a. experimental studies
b. longitudinal studies
c. clinical tries
d. correlational studies
44. A study examined two groups of people—those who were exercising and those who
weren’t—and examined their past history to try to understand why some people currently
exercise whereas other do not. This is an example of what type of correlational design?
a. retrospective study
b. prospective study
c. clinical trial study
d. all of the above
45. Occasionally factors that predict death, or ______________, are not the same factors that
predict disease, or _______________.
a. mortality, morbidity
b. morbidity, incidence
c. morbidity, mortality
d. mortality, incidence
46. Prevalence of an illness refers to
a. the proportion of the population that has a disease at a specific time.
b. the number of new cases of a disease in a year.
c. the percentage of new cases of a disease in a year.
d. the percentage of total deaths caused by a disease in one year.
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47. Observational methods in epidemiology are most closely related to which psychology
method?
a. correlational studies
b. experimental designs
c. ex post facto designs
d. case history method
48. Prospective epidemiological studies are also
a. cross-sectional.
b. longitudinal.
c. experimental.
d. clinical trials.
49. A study that begins with a group of participants who already have a disease is most likely
to be
a. a retrospective study.
b. a prospective study.
c. a correlational study.
d. an experimental study.
50. Which type of study begins with a group of people who already have a disease and then
looks into factors that are associated with that disease?
a. experimental
b. placebo
c. prospective
d. retrospective
51. Which type of epidemiological study is most similar to an experimental design in
psychology?
a. case-control.
b. retrospective.
c. prospective.
d. randomized, controlled trial.
52. Which of the following situations would most seriously complicate the interpretation of
causation in a research design?
a. a study in which participants are unaware that they are part of an experiment
b. a study in which participants are aware that they are part of an experiment
c. a design in which participants are allowed to self-select
d. a design in which participants are not allowed to self-select
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53. Psychologists and epidemiologists would agree that which type of study is the most
desirable design, the “gold standard” of scientific research?
a. case-control study
b. randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind trial
c. natural experiment
d. correlational study
54. Natural experiments in epidemiology are most similar to what kind of psychology study?
a. experimental
b. ex post facto
c. correlational
d. observational
55. A statistical technique for combining the results of several studies is
a. meta-analysis.
b. transactional analysis.
c. hypothesis testing.
d. scientific myopia.
56. The results of a meta-analysis allow researchers to determine one type of information that
other statistical analyses do not, which is
a. the statistical significance of the effect.
b. the correlation between variables.
c. the size of the effect.
d. the main effects and interactions of variables.
57. The Alameda County study is an example of
a. an experimental longitudinal design.
b. a prospective design.
c. an experimental descriptive design.
d. a correlational cross-sectional design.
58. Mortality is to death as morbidity is to
a. mortality.
b. disease.
c. trauma.
d. gruesome.
59. Research has found that obesity is related to high blood pressure. This finding means that
a. obesity is a risk factor for high blood pressure.
b. obesity is an independent risk factor for high blood pressure.
Conducting Health Research
c. most overweight people die of high blood pressure.
d. thin people are protected against high blood pressure.
60. A research study found a direct, consistent association between late bedtime and
childhood obesity. This is known as a _____________ relationship.
a. negative
b. dose-response
c. positive
d. causal
61. The ratio of the incidence or prevalence of a disease in an exposed group to the incidence
or prevalence of that disease in the unexposed group is called
a. a risk factor.
b. dose-response relationship.
c. a relative risk.
d. causation.
62. The determination of causation is most easily accepted on the basis of
a. clinical trials.
b. studies using the risk factor approach.
c. community trials.
d. experimental studies.
63. Wendi is a long-time smoker, which carries a relative risk of about 23.0 for lung cancer
death and 2.0 for heart disease mortality. From this information you can conclude that
a. Wendi is more than four times as likely to die from lung cancer as from heart
disease.
b. Wendi’s absolute risk for lung cancer is greater than her absolute risk for heart
disease.
c. Wendi is about 23 times more likely to die of lung cancer than those who do not
smoke.
d. Wendi is about 23 times more likely to die of heart disease than her twin sister.
64. Research has found that lung cancer increases with number of cigarettes smoked. This
finding
a. indicates a negative relationship between smoking and lung cancer.
b. indicates a positive relationship between smoking and lung cancer.
c. proves that smoking causes lung cancer.
d. suggest that cancer prone personalities are more likely to begin smoking.
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65. A direct, consistent relationship between the independent variable and the dependent
variable
a. is an example of the placebo effect.
b. is an example of the nocebo effect.
c. indicates a dose-response relationship.
d. indicates a transverse relationship.
66. In order for epidemiologists to infer that Behavior A causes Disease B, they must observe
a. that Behavior A precedes Disease B.
b. a dose-response relationship between Behavior A and Disease B.
c. a decline in Disease B when Behavior A is eliminated.
d. all of these.
67. Theories should be viewed as
a. tools of philosophy.
b. tools of science.
c. tested hypotheses.
d. untested hypotheses.
68. We are designing a new instrument to measure happiness. If we ask participants to
complete the same instrument of happiness over several days, we are testing this new
instruments’ ______________.
a. external validity
b. interrater reliability
c. predictive validity
d. test-retest reliability
69. For a scale that is measuring eating disorder likelihood to have good _______________,
it needs to be able to differentiate between those who will get eating disorders versus
those who would not.
a. external validity
b. interrater reliability
c. predictive validity
d. test-retest reliability
70. Which of these is NOT a function of a useful theory?
a. generate research
b. serve as a guide to action
c. eliminate researcher bias
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d. organize observations
71. Reliability means
a. accuracy.
b. structure.
c. validity.
d. consistency.
72. When scores on two administrations of the same test are in close agreement, then that test
is
a. reliable.
b. valid.
c. both reliable and valid.
d. neither reliable nor valid.
73. Test X is designed to predict which individuals in a smoking cessation program will
successfully quit smoking. Scores from Test X administered at the beginning of a
cessation program correlate .89 with length of time smokers are able to quit. This
evidence suggests that Test X is
a. reliable.
b. valid.
c. standardized.
d. consistent.
74. The extent to which a test measures what it is designed to measure is an expression of
a. test-retest reliability.
b. internal consistency.
c. homogeneity.
d. validity.
75. If a test predicts some future condition, it is said to have
a. negative validity.
b. criterion-related validity.
c. predictive validity.
d. no validity.
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76. A valid test
a. is both accurate and reliable.
b. is consistent but not accurate.
c. is accurate but not consistent.
d. has a time limit.
True/False Questions
1. The placebo has treatment benefits but presents problems to researchers.
2. The placebo can affect psychological disorders, but it has no effect on biological processes.
3. For a treatment to be considered effective, the treatment must show an equal rate of
effectiveness when compared to a placebo.
4. When the placebo treatment is described in a hidden manner, placebos can lead to fewer
symptoms and better quality of life when compared to no treatment.
5. Correlational studies yield information about causation.
6. Experimental studies yield information about causation.
7. Epidemiology is a branch of medicine.
8. The number of new cases of AIDS per year reveals the incidence of that disease.
9. A prospective study begins with a group of participants who have a given condition or disease.
10. With an ex post facto study, researchers compare two or more groups.
11. Retrospective studies begin with a group of people who already have a disease or disorder.
12. The randomized, clinical trial is a type of retrospective study.
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13. The number of new cases of a particular disease during a specific period of time is incidence.
14. A study that allows participants to choose whether they are in the experimental condition or
the control condition is committing the problem of self-selection.
15. A useful theory should generate, organize, and guide research.
16. An experiment consists of at least two groups: an experimental group and a control group.
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Essay Questions
1. Discuss the disadvantages and advantages of placebos.
2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of experimental studies and correlational
studies? What might prompt a researcher to choose a correlational design over an
experimental design?
3. Contrast and compare research methods in psychology with those in epidemiology.
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4. Without regard to ethics or practicality, design a study that would settle the question of
whether or not smoking causes lung cancer.
5. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the risk factor approach.
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6. Contrast the concepts of reliability and validity. How is each important for psychological
assessment?