Chapter 14 Qualitative data collection
Suggested Activities
1. Send students ‘to the field’ in pairs. (This activity should be cleared with your IRB, but should
not need approval since the data will not be used and students are practicing observations not
interacting with potential participants.) Pairs should be in the field for approximately 10-15
minutes. Provide a common protocol for all of the students to use. An example might be one that
includes the following selected aspects of the protocol found in Chapter 14, referenced as a
simple protocol for observation. Encourage students to ‘label’ their data with time, date,
number, and a brief description such as is found in Figure 14.2
• Who is being observed? How many people are there? Who are they? What individual roles
and mannerisms are evident?
• What is going on? What are people saying or doing? How do the participants interact with
each other? What beliefs, attitudes, values, etc are evident in the participants?
• What activities or interactions seemed unusual or significant? What was the researcher doing
during the session?
Students should be sent to places where they can observe without a lot of interruption from others
so they can (and the class as a whole can) learn from each other’s notes and experiences. If you
have students with varied skill, it might be appropriate for a more and less able student to go to
the same site. Encourage students to use different colors of ink, or code the notes taken at the site
and those added after the experience. Students should be encouraged to record while at the site,
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2. Develop a mock interview between two of the students regarding a hot topic in the community or
on campus. Recently at my institution there is some conflict between students and administration
related to logos and companies producing materials. Be sure to select students who can facilitate
the activity by talking and describing a lot, making stuff up ‘on the fly’ and by asking appropriate
questions. You will want to provide a protocol or at the least some substantial coaching to the
role-playing students. It is ideal to provide both ‘good’ and ‘bad’ interview questions so the
students can see what can happen when questions are not well crafted. Further, be sure to
include both convergent and divergent questions so students can see how each ‘work’ in an
interview.
3. Qualitative data sources that students generally think of are observations and interviews. Less
thought is taken regarding documents and other sources. Further, students tend to believe that
they will interview or observe specific individuals. Have students work in pairs or groups of
three to consider one of the following examples what data sources might be available to them
given the following topics, or one of your or their choosing, for description in a given district.
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Handout 14.3
Working a small group or with a peer consider the following potential focal points for a
qualitative research study to be conducted within a district.
School Climate
Leadership opportunities
Playground culture
Physical Education as a context
Consider the following questions:
Who might be your informant(s)? Consider multiple levels of informants.
What settings might you observe? How often, how, and why?
Who might you interview? How often and why?
What other sources might be available as data (think deeply)? Consider documents including
correspondence, policies, photos and other materials.
Are there any ‘things’ you would want to catalog or describe?
4. I asked one of my students if I could share one of our recent qualitative research experiences and
she agreed. She was interested in examining self-handicapping strategies of college students
through the use of interviews. She worked hard to create an interview protocol. We tested
questions and prompts with people we knew, received feedback, and used a number of
development strategies. I worked with her to develop questions that I felt would lead to rich
explanation from her participants. However, despite all of the development work, when it came
time to conduct the interviews, she was under-confident in her interviewing skills and she wanted
to ask participants ‘more’ versus ‘deeper’ questions. I allowed her to make this mistake. (It was a
pilot and sometimes you need to learn the hard way.) As she started to transcribe her data she
came to me and said, “They aren’t saying anything. They say yes and no or answer with only a
short phrase. I am not learning anything about what they actually think or what they do or don’t
do.”
What is your name?
Is that they name your family and friends use for you?
Have you ever used a different name?
Do you have any siblings?
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If so, where do they live?
(Have participant describe relationship with sibling)
Are you taking classes toward a degree?
What has been your favorite class?
Tell me about it. What made it your favorite?
Tell me the story of your life…
Where were you born?
Where did you grow up?
Who was your kindergarten or first grade teacher, what was he or she like?
What was your favorite school subject? Why?
Describe your favorite high school memory.
Describe your least favorite high school memory.
Chapter 14 Test Items
1. The best location for the initial meetings with potential participants for a qualitative study
is
a. in the researcher’s office.
b. with a gatekeeper at a location of his or her selection.
c. in the research setting.
d. at a neutral location.
2. In qualitative research the primary source data is
a. the researcher.
b. the participant.
c. face-to-face interaction.
d. numerical data.
3. Of the following the most common data source in a qualitative study is
a. e-mail.
b. survey data.
c. observations.
d. document analysis.
• 4. Ankur is conducting a qualitative research study that explores the context of
youth competitive soccer. Of the following, which is likely the most prevalent source
from which he will collect data?
a. Times of speed drills completed in practice
b. Individual player’s statistics for the season
c. Observations of players and others at games
d. Surveys of community members opinions
• 5. Myles is conducting a qualitative research study of middle management
engineers enrolled in an executive MBA program. If Myles’ study is consistent with
practice, which of the following represents his primary data source?
a. Records from the school that show the program requirements
b. Observations of the students while engaged in coursework
c. Opinion surveys regarding participants purposes for enrollment
d. Students’ academic transcripts
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6. According to your text, the three primary data collection techniques qualitative
researchers use include all of the following EXCEPT
a. Observations
b. Interviews
c. Examining records
d. Attitude surveys
• 7. Melanie is a qualitative researcher studying veteran teachers’ perceptions of the State’s
new teacher certification criteria. Which of the following is NOT likely part of her
primary data sources?
a. Interviews with veteran teachers
b. Observations of Teachers’ Union meetings where the new criteria are discussed
c. The articles written in the popular press by teachers who are participants in her study
d. The test scores of the districts students who have veteran teachers.
• 8. Lan is working on a study of teachers’ use of technology in their classrooms. She uses
observation as her primary data collection method. Which of the following research sites
is likely MOST pertinent to Lan’s study?
a. Faculty/Staff rooms where teachers’ talk about technology
b. Conference sessions that teachers attend about technology
c. The classrooms of her teacher participants
d. The computer lab that the students go to after school.
• 9. As a researcher interested in young children’s motivation to read, Cynthia works as a
volunteer in a pre-kindergarten setting for approximately 6 months as she collects data
regarding children’s reading motivation. In this scenario, Cynthia is best described as a
a. Participant observer.
b. Nonparticipant observer.
c. Covert observer.
d. Experienced observer.
• 10. Lakyle’s study explores social interactions among mentally disabled
adult piece workers. She uses observation as her primary data collection
method. Which of the following research sites is likely MOST pertinent to
Lakyle’s study?
a. The assembly room where participants work
b. Transportation of individual participants to work
c. Participants classroom type training experiences
d. Participants interactions with their caregivers about work
• 11. Lupe’s study describes the experiences of Division I cross country athletes. She uses
observations as her primary data collection methods. Which of the following research
sites is likely MOST pertinent to Lupe’s study?
a. Cross country practice
b. Coaches’ conference meeting
c. Parent’s of athletes homes
d. Athlete’s high school coaches offices
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• 12.-13. Damir is a music educator interested in successful high school Jazz programs.
He goes to work as a ‘new’ teacher at a high school with a high-ranking Jazz program.
He works with the students and with the music educator at the school while exploring the
Jazz program.
• 12. In this scenario, Damir is best described as a
a. participant observer.
b. nonparticipant observer.
c. covert observer.
d. experienced observer.
• 13. Given this scenario, which of the following research sites is likely MOST
pertinent to Damir’s study?
a. The teachers’ lounge in the music wing of the building
b. The Jazz programs’ concerts
c. The Jazz programs’ practice sessions
d. Individual student lessons with the Jazz instructors
• 14. Jill, a sociologist, is interested in social networking behaviors of exceptional business
students. She goes to the business student socials, honorary meetings, and other public
events. She does not interact with the business students but does observe and record their
behaviors. In this scenario, Jill is best described as a(n)
a. participant observer.
b. nonparticipant observer.
c. overt observer.
d. privileged observer.
15. Of the following types of observation for qualitative data collection, which is considered
the LEAST obtrusive?
a. Participant observer
b. Nonparticipant observer
c. Overt observer
d. Privileged observer
16. In the initial observation session it is suggested that the researcher
a. stay for an extended length of time to better understand the setting.
b. stay for a short time until the process of writing field notes is established.
c. observe only, do not take any field notes as it will diminish your focus.
d. ask numerous questions of all potential participants to establish rapport.
17. Field notes include
a. the informant’s descriptions.
b. the gatekeeper’s reflections.
c. both informant and researcher descriptions.
d. the researcher’s descriptions and reflection.
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• 18. Geir is a qualitative researcher interested in studying the role playing games of
current children that relate to Nordic heroes. To collect data he goes to afterschool
programs that allow a free play period. He observes the children as they play,
documenting who they are role playing and the behaviors they engage in as well as how
they socially negotiate the script of their play. Geir is best described as a
a. Participant observer
b. Non participant observer
c. Privileged observer
d. Covert observer
19. Field notes should be written
a. in the field during the observation.
b. after a time delay to assure reflection.
c. as concisely as possible.
d. by an assistant not the researcher.
20. A framework for field notes that is consistent across observation sessions developed
before data collection is referred to as
a. a memo.
b. a protocol.
c. interaction analysis.
d. a thick description.
• 21. Peter is interested in the characteristics of teaching in a start-up charter school.
Peter holds a teaching certificate and has arranged a sabbatical from his university
position to teach in the school as part of his fieldwork. Peter is displaying which form of
data collection?
a. Participant observation
b. Covert observation
c. Nonparticipant observation
d. External observation
• 22. Deirdre studies Irish-American culture as demonstrated in urban areas with large
concentrations of Irish-Americans and small communities in rural areas that have
remained tied to their Irish roots. As an Irish-American herself, she has decided to move
to a Irish-American community to reside for the duration of her study. While there she
will observe the community. Deirdre is displaying which form of data collection?
a. Participant observation
b. Covert observation
c. Overt observation
d. Nonparticipant observation
23. Whether the researcher was able to present the data without being judgmental is the
definition of which form of qualitative research validity?
a. Evaluative
b. Descriptive
c. Theoretical
d. Interpretive
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• 24. Of the following, which is a suggestion to researchers regarding field notes?
a. Engage as deeply as possible as soon as possible
b. Write field notes after you have had time to reflect
c. Document the date, site, topic, and time on your field notes.
d. While in the field focus your attention to your reactions and feelings.
25. Interviews generally used to gather basic information at the start of a study are referred to
as
a. structured.
b. informal.
c. unstructured.
d. spontaneous.
26. When conducting a questionnaire study which of the following is an accurate statement
regarding human research protocols?
a. In qualitative research studies with questionnaires, participants’ information is not
confidential.
b. In qualitative research studies with questionnaires, participants’ waive their rights to
confidentiality when they consent.
c. In qualitative research studies with questionnaires, participants anonymity is always
maintained.
d. In qualitative research studies with questionnaire, participants’ confidential
information remains protected.
• 27. As part of his research on young elite athletes, Chris was conducting a nonparticipant
observation of a national youth track meet. Audrey started to ask him questions about his
session before he had a chance to finish recording his field notes. He told her that he
didn’t want to discuss his session until after he had recorded his notes. Relying on your
text content, which of the following is accurate regarding discussion of field notes?
a. Chris is right, discussion of the field notes at this time might alter his perceptions.
b. Chris is right, discussion of the field notes at this time is unethical.
c. Chris is wrong, discussion of the field notes at this time will help him to remember
important details and description.
d. Chris is wrong, discussion of the field notes at this time will help him to understand
what he has seen more deeply.
28. Consistent with guidelines in your text for field notes, researchers should
a. include only descriptive information in field notes.
b. include only reflective information in field notes.
c. record descriptive and reflective information together in field notes .
d. record descriptive and reflective information separately in field notes.
• 29. Which of the following data collection techniques is most appropriate in order to address
a practicing nurse’s experiences while in a continuing education session?
a. Observation
b. Document analysis
c. Interview
d. Survey
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• 30. Jeb studies the motivation of young environmentalists. He wants to understand more
about the ways in which these children think about environmental issues and how their
ideas have developed. He identifies participants through a local ‘green kids’ group and
goes to their next meeting. He selects several of the children through convenience, and
asks them open-ended questions that he has written down in advance. He records their
responses as they answer the questions. Jeb is best displaying which of the following
types of interviews?
a. Unstructured and informal
b. Unstructured and formal
c. Structured and informal
d. Unstructured and informal
• 31. According to your text, using educational records generally includes all EXCEPT
the following data sources?
a. journals
b. videotapes
c. maps
d. surveys
• 32. Luke is conducting an interview study with parents regarding separation anxiety in
preschool children. He first starts by asking the parent if his or her child experiences
separation anxiety. This first question on Luke’s interview protocol is considered a(n)
a. nonverbal question.
b. convergent question.
c. open question.
d. A priori question.
• 33. Susan is conducting interviews with successful technology entrepreneurs. She needs to
pilot her interview protocol. Of the following, who would constitute the most appropriate
pilot group?
a. Other technology entrepreneurs
b. Entrepreneurs in other fields
c. Those who invest in technology entrepreneurs
d. Employees of technology entrepreneurs
34. Of the following, which is NOT a means to collect data from an
interview?
a. Writing notes after the interview
b. Having the participant write their responses
c. Writing notes during the interview
d. Videotaping the interview
35. Of the following, the data collection method of choice in interview studies is
a. writing notes after the interview.
b. having the participant write their responses.
c. writing notes during the interview.
d. videotaping the interview.
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• 36. Finn is a qualitative researcher setting out to conduct his first interview of his
study. He isn’t sure if he should record the interview. Given recommendations regarding
data collection methods, please advise Finn.
a. Qualitative researchers do not generally record the first interview.
b. Qualitative researchers recommend recording the interview.
c. Qualitative researchers do not record novice interviewers.
d. Qualitative researchers recommend only video recording interviews.
37. A standard 60-minute audio-taped interview will likely take approximately ________ to
transcribe.
a. 30 minutes
b. 1 hour
c. 2 hours
d. 4 hours
38. One difference between observers and interviewers is that
a. observers use protocols but interviewers do not.
b. interviewers use protocols but observers to not.
c. observers may not be face to face with the participant but interviewers generally are.
d. interviewers may not be face to face with the participants but observers generally are.
• 39. Debbie was observing classes in a small rural school as part of her study on opportunities
in the arts in diverse school districts. She heard several teachers make reference to the
upcoming ‘play day’ within the context of their lessons. Not knowing what the ‘play day’
was, Debbie pulled the principal aside and asked her to explain. In this example, Debbie
is best illustrating a(n)
a. formal interview.
b. structured interview.
c. semi-structured interview.
d. informal interview.
• 40. Nancy is interviewing graduate students regarding their opinion of a graduate student
union. She uses a predetermined protocol, takes notes, and also audiotapes the sessions.
After each session Nancy types the audiotapes, verbatim, into a computer file. Nancy is
best illustrating
a. memoing.
b. transcribing.
c. interpreting.
d. categorizing.
• 41. Jody needs to conduct a study for her research methods course. She is interested in
studying home schooling. She thinks that students who are home-schooled can’t develop
appropriate social skills. As part of her study she will be observing home-schooled
children in social settings. Jody must be particularly cautious in her study not to
introduce
a. response bias.
b. observer bias.
c. observer effect.
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d. negative case effect.
• 42. Rori is observing elite marching bands as part of her dissertation study. She is
particularly interested in drum major leadership styles and behavior. She has found that
the drum major at her current research site is very interested in showing off for her. This
is an example of
a. response bias.
b. observer bias.
c. observer effect.
d. negative case effect.
43. As involvement in participant observation increases
a. response bias increases.
b. subjectivity increases.
c. observer effect increases.
d. objectivity increases.
• 44.-45.Keb is convinced that teachers provide more praise to their students while he is
observing in their classrooms than they do otherwise.
• 44. Keb is potentially experiencing an example of
a. response bias.
b. observer bias.
c. observer effect.
d. negative case effect.
• 45. Of the following the most appropriate way to decrease Keb’s concerns and increase
validity of his data is
a. to tell teachers he is interested in something unrelated to praise.
b. to focus on a smaller number of teachers.
c. increase the amount of time he spends in the classrooms.
d. observe the classes covertly.
• 46.-47. Elaine is interpreting her data and realizes that the amount of time she spent at
one of the schools is substantially smaller and that she has very little data from that site.
She believes it is because she did not ‘click’ with the principal of one of the five schools
she is studying and therefore that school is not well represented in her data.
• 46. Elaine is potentially experiencing an example of
a. response bias.
b. observer bias.
c. observer effect.
d. negative case effect.
• 47. The school is important for Elaine’s study. Of the following, which is the most
appropriate way to remedy Elaine’s problem?
a. Confront the principal and then collect more data.
b. Extend the collection and have another researcher collect data.
c. Recognize the problem and eliminate the school from the study.
d. Change the nature of research questions and drop the school.
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• 48. Marty is studying teacher innovation with technology. He is really surprised to find that
whenever he comes for his scheduled observations, the teachers he is studying all use
extensive amounts of computer-based technology in their classrooms. Marty may be
experiencing
a. the halo effect.
b. observer bias.
c. observer effect.
d. response bias.
49. One strategy that researchers can use to ease into the field is to
a. ask all the specific questions first to establish rapport.
b. come to the first session unannounced to see things ‘the way they really are’.
c. try not to answer any questions about themselves or the study so not to influence the
responses.
d. be relatively passive and ask nonspecific questions to increase comfort level.
50. Which of the following is NOT considered a qualitative research data
source?
a. Photographs
b. Journals
c. Informal conversations
d. Survey instruments
• 51. George is studying apprenticeship in singers. Which of the following is the primary data
source in his qualitative research study?
e. George himself
f. Audiotapes of voice sessions
g. Journals of the master singers
h. Interviews with the emerging singers
• 52. Gretchen is studying the experiences of foster children in new school settings. As a
social worker and a qualitative researcher, she would like to conduct observations to
collect her data. If observes the children as a by stander while they are in school.
Gretchen’s data collection strategy can be classified as
a. active participant observation.
b. nonparticipant observation.
c. passive observation.
d. privileged observation.
• 53. While collecting data through observation at a hockey game, Bruce, is astonished by
what he feels is violently aggressive behavior. How should Bruce address this
astonishment in his notes?
a. Bruce should not reference his personal reaction in his field notes nor journal.
b. Bruce should include his reaction within his description in his field notes.
c. Bruce should include his reaction in his field notes separate from his description.
d. Bruce should record his personal reaction in his journal not his field notes.
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54. Of the following, one way qualitative researchers can decrease observer bias is to
a. triangulate data sources.
b. use covert observation.
c. use observations instead of interviews.
d. decrease the amount of time spent in the field.
55. Of the following, one way qualitative researchers can decrease
observer effect is to
a. rely only on nonparticipant observation.
b. increase the amount of time spent in the field.
c. increase observational training.
d. use observations instead of interviews.
56. Which of the following is considered a specific validity threat in qualitative research?
a. Treatment effects
b. History effects
c. Observer effects
d. Selection effects
• 57.-59. Karen is teaching knitting as a means to increase fine motor skills in her
occupational therapy sessions. Cynthia is a qualitative researcher who has enrolled in the
class as a student to experience the new ‘therapy’. Cynthia feels that Jacob, a student in
the class, will not benefit from the training since he is a large male she feels that knitting
is better for females with smaller hands. In fact, in her field notes Cynthia finds support
that indeed, the knitting therapy does not seem to be a positive experience for Jacob.
• 57. In this scenario, Cynthia is considered a(n)
a. active observer.
b. nonparticipant observer.
c. passive observer.
d. Post hoc observer.
• 58. Given this scenario, Cynthia may have introduced which of the following validity threats
into her study?
a. Observer bias
b. Observer effect
c. Selection effect
d. Selection bias
• 59. Cynthia could best decrease the threat to validity in her study by
a. increasing the number of data sources.
b. spending less time in the field.
c. modifying the type of observations that she makes.
d. not including her reflections in her field notes.
60. Which of the following is important when conducting focus groups?
a. Designate one leader to assure order in responses
b. Include large groups to collect richer data
c. Allow all participants to respond to questions
d. Leave the process open-ended without researcher interference
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61. Which of the following is generally true when comparing focus group interviews with
individual interviews?
a. Focus group interviews often take more time than individual interviews
b. Focus group interviews are conducted without structured questions
c. All participants must reach agreement for quality data from focus groups
d. Transcribing focus group interviews is often easier than individual interviews
62. Which of the following statements regarding e-mail interviews is supported by
your text?
a. E-mail interviews should not be used as they do not provide rich data.
b. Ethical concerns with e-mail interviews can be challenging for researchers.
c. Participants are less likely to participate in an e-mail interview than an in-person
interview.
d. E-mail interviews are often harder to transcribe than in-person interviews.
63. Which of the following defines descriptive validity in qualitative research?
a. transferability.
b. factual accuracy.
c. generalizability.
d. elaborated truth.
64. Which of the following is one of the best ways to directly increase the confirmability of
qualitative research?
a. Practice triangulation.
b. Establish an ‘audit’ trail.
c. Establish referential adequacy.
d. Do persistent observation.
65. Which of the following is a criteria for validity of qualitative research?
a. Interpretive validity
b. Test/retest validity
c. Construct validity
d. Concurrent validity
66. The ability of a qualitative research report to explain the phenomenon that was studied
and described refers to which of the following types of qualitative research validity?
a. Descriptive
b. Theoretical
c. Evaluative
d. Generalizability
67. The degree to which a qualitative research study is able to generalize to settings not
studied by the researcher refers to as which of the following types of qualitative research
validity?
a. Internal theoretical validity
b. External evaluative validity
c. External generalizability
d. Internal interpretive validity
68.
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The neutrality or objectivity of the data collected refers to which of the following validity
criteria for qualitative research?
a. Dependability
b. Transferability
c. Credibility
d. Confirmability
69. The researcher’s belief that everything is context-bound refers to which of the following
validity criteria for qualitative research?
a. Dependability
b. Transferability
c. Credibility
d. Confirmability
70. Which of the following is one of the recommended ways to directly increase the
credibility of a qualitative research study?
a. Practice reflexivity
b. Do peer debriefing
c. Overlap methods
d. Establish an audit trail
• 71. One strategy that Orin used to assure that his participants’ voice regarding the
transition to one to one laptaps in the school was accurate was to share his initial write up
for feedback. Through this strategy Orin demonstrated most directly which type of
validity?
a. Descriptive
b. Interpretative
c. Internal generalizability
d. Evaluative
• 72. Pascual is a qualitative researcher who studies ESL classes for middle
school immigrants from Latin-American countries. He has strong opinions
regarding how ESL classes are structured and the types of learning experiences
provided to ESL students. Which of the following validity concerns most
directly addresses how well Pascual can present his data without being
judgmental?
e. Generalizability
f. Descriptive validity
g. Evaluative validity
h. Theoretical validity
• 73. Harsha studies the experiences of Indian children in extended family
homes who live in suburban America. She is concerned that she accurately
represents her participants’ perspectives. Harsha is most directly concerned
with which of the following forms of qualitative research validity?
a. Descriptive validity
b. Interpretive validity.
c. Theoretical validity
d. Evaluative validity
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• 74. Tucker studies the experiences of youth wrestlers in an elite Olympic
development training program. As he shares his research, one member of the audience
asks about how his research findings inform coaching of high school wrestlers. This
audience member’s question is most directly related to which of the following validity
concerns?
a. Generalizability
b. Theoretical validity
c. Evaluative validity
d. Descriptive validity
• 75. Which of the following is consistent with the strategies your text presents for
ensuring the validity of qualitative research?
a. Keep your observations to yourself so participants do not influence your conclusions.
b. Record your experiences only after you have left the research site so you can attend
to details while in the field.
c. Only begin writing once all of the data are collected to assure objective data
collection.
d. Allow participants to read and respond to your observations as part of your data
collection to assure credibility.
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Chapter 14 Answers