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Chapter 15 – Life Cycle Nutrition: Pregnancy and Lactation
An. Page(s)/difficulty K = knowledge-level, A = application level
Multiple Choice
Questions for Section 15.1 Nutrition prior to Pregnancy
a. underweight has little, if any, effect on fertility.
b. overweight men have low sperm counts that reduce fertility.
c. excess body fat in women interferes with the regular cycles of menstruation.
d. the woman’s nutritional status is more important than the man’s for the developing
fetus.
periodically produce a normal egg?
a. Zygote
b. Fertility
c. Conception
d. Implantation zone
a. Being underweight
b. Having excess body fat
c. Eliminating low-glycemic carbohydrates from the diet
d. Choosing diets providing protein from vegetable sources
Questions for Section 15.2 Growth and Development during Pregnancy
products with the fetus?
a. Uterus
b. Vagina
c. Placenta
d. Amniotic sac
a. Uterus
b. Ovaries
c. Placenta
d. Amniotic sac
a. Uterus
b. Placenta
c. Caesareas
d. Belly button
a. An organ from which the infant receives nourishment
b. A muscular organ within which the infant develops before birth
c. The developing infant from the eighth week after conception until birth
d. The developing infant during its second through eighth week after conception
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a. fetus.
b. ovum.
c. zygote.
d. embryo.
a. 1 inch
b. 6 inches
c. 1 foot
d. 1.5 feet
a. 6 inches.
b. 12 inches.
c. 20 inches.
d. 3 feet.
a. 32–36
b. 38–42
c. 43–45
d. 46–49
a. 4 weeks, called quarters.
b. 9 weeks, called quartiles.
c. 4 months, called semesters.
d. 3 months, called trimesters.
a. malnutrition during pregnancy can affect fetal cell division.
b. malnutrition during critical periods can have irreversible effects.
c. high-nutrient-density food fed after the critical period can remedy a growth deficit.
d. whatever nutrients are needed during a critical period must be supplied at that time.
occur from specific events such as malnutrition or exposure to toxins?
a. First trimester
b. Critical period
c. Fertility period
d. Conceptual period
the stage at which the digestive system is formed?
a. Fetus
b. Embryo
c. Ectoderm
d. Mesoderm
until birth?
a. Fetus
b. Ovum
c. Zygote
d. Embryo
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nervous system?
a. 8 weeks
b. 12 weeks
c. 20 weeks
d. 29 weeks
a. Heart and lungs
b. Liver and kidneys
c. Gastrointestinal tract
d. Central nervous system and brain
a. umbilical cord.
b. liver and pancreas.
c. gastrointestinal tract.
d. brain and spinal cord.
pregnancy being affected by a neural tube defect?
a. Maternal obesity
b. Age at time of pregnancy
c. Low socioeconomic status
d. Exposure to a hot-tub during pregnancy
a. They are found in about 1,000 newborns in the United States each year
b. They include common disorders such as liver and kidney disease
c. They can be prevented by supplementation of the pregnant woman’s diet with
vitamin B12
d. They can be prevented by supplementation of the pregnant woman’s diet with
vitamins A and E
a. spina bifida.
b. macrosomia.
c. anencephaly.
d. neural tube seizure.
a. macrosomia.
b. anencephaly.
c. preeclampsia.
d. cesarean section.
a. Liver
b. Heart
c. Brain
d. Pancreas
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advising patients to make sure they consume about 400 micrograms of folate every day.
One patient is aware that folate helps prevent birth defects but she isn’t sure why she
should take it if she is not pregnant. Which of the following is the most appropriate
reply?
a. The folate supplementation prevents pernicious anemia, which increases the risk of
spina bifida
b. The folate supplementation is needed to ensure a large store that can be utilized by
the growing fetus
c. As long as supplementation begins the day pregnancy is confirmed, there is no risk
of defects
d. The neural tube develops early on in pregnancy, oftentimes before the woman
realizes she is pregnant
associated with a lower incidence of neural tube defects?
a. Iron
b. Folate
c. Calcium
d. Cobalamin
defects of infants when the vitamin is taken during the
a. last trimester of pregnancy.
b. second trimester of pregnancy.
c. second and third trimesters of pregnancy.
d. month before conception through the first trimester of pregnancy.
a. 25
b. 50
c. 75
d. 100
a. 10
b. 20
c. 35
d. 50
are fortified with what nutrient?
a. Folate
b. Thiamine
c. Vitamin C
d. Vitamin B12
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abnormal metabolism?
a. Malnutrition during pregnancy leads to macrosomia and GI disturbances in the
offspring
b. Insufficient nutrient intake during pregnancy promotes hypertrophy of the kidneys
and hypotension in adulthood
c. Nutrition during pregnancy is the chief determinant of pancreatic beta cell growth
and the risk for type 2 diabetes of the offspring
d. Malnutrition during pregnancy programs the fetus to modify the genetic composition
of the placenta and thereby alter nutrient delivery through the umbilical cord
later in life is known as
a. retrogenetics.
b. reverse genetics.
c. fetal programming.
d. postpartum degenerative expression.
Questions for Section 15.3 Maternal Weight
a. Infant’s birthweight
b. Mother’s weight before pregnancy
c. Mother’s weight gain during pregnancy
d. Mother’s nutrition status prior to pregnancy
a. A neural tube defect
b. A high-birthweight infant
c. Excessive weight gain of the mother
d. Abnormal cravings for carbohydrate during pregnancy
a. Folate deficiency
b. Prepregnancy obesity
c. Postpregnancy infection
d. Gestational oxygen deprivation
a. Term
b. Preterm
c. Post term
d. Caesarean
a. Term
b. Preterm
c. Post term
d. Caesarean
weight woman?
a. 10-18
b. 19-24
c. 25-35
d. 38-44
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underweight woman?
a. 15-25
b. 28-40
c. 42-50
d. 55-62
result from
a. insufficient exercise.
b. poor glycemic control.
c. insufficient folate intake.
d. higher prevalence of cesarean section.
a. Overweight women bear the greatest number of low-birth-weight infants
b. Weight gain during pregnancy is the sole determinant of fetus weight at birth
c. The increased incidence of neural-tube defects of infants born to obese women is due
primarily to folate insufficiency
d. Underweight women who gain 30 lbs during pregnancy tend to birth smaller babies
than heavier women who gain 30 lbs
What vital information is needed to formulate a plan of weight gain?
a. Weight and height
b. Physical activity level
c. Number of previous pregnancies
d. Weight gain preference of the mother
a. edema.
b. poor glycemic control.
c. insufficient physical activity.
d. development of neural tube defects.
gain from the start of the second trimester and onward?
a. 1 lb
b. 2 lbs
c. 3 lbs
d. 4 lbs
a. Fall in blood pressure
b. Elevated blood glucose
c. A large weight gain over a short time
d. Chronic episodes of pica over the last 2 trimesters
twins?
a. 25
b. 37
c. 45
d. 55
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a. 11 lbs
b. 18 lbs
c. 25 lbs
d. 35 lbs
a. excessive fat deposition.
b. excessive fluid retention.
c. abnormal fetal development.
d. normal pregnancy only if it occurs during the second trimester.
the infant at birth is the
a. placenta.
b. amniotic sac fluid.
c. maternal fat stores.
d. uterus and supporting muscles.
pregnancy?
a. Weight gain is generally steady throughout pregnancy for normal–weight women
b. Most women are unable to lose all of the weight that was gained during pregnancy
c. Sudden, large weight gain in pregnancy may signal the development of hypotension
d. Overweight pregnant women should gain as much weight as underweight pregnant
women
considered acceptable except
a. saunas.
b. swimming.
c. playing singles tennis.
d. 50-minute aerobic exercise sessions 3 times/week.
Questions for Section 15.4 Nutrition during Pregnancy
a. breast size increases.
b. blood volume increases.
c. body water level decreases.
d. joint flexibility increases.
looking forward to all the ice cream, chips and cakes she has seen women on TV and in
the movies eating when they are pregnant. What is the most appropriate advice for
Jenny?
a. She can eat these foods, but only up to 340 kcalories extra per day
b. She can eat these foods, but only up to 550 kcalories extra per day
c. She does not have increased energy needs in the first trimester and should not
indulge herself
d. She should not eat these foods, but rather include one extra serving from each food
group per day
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of pregnancy?
a. 200
b. 300
c. 450
d. 540
does the average pregnant woman need to consume?
a. 10,500
b. 26,000
c. 49,000
d. 72,000
a. The need is proportionally greater than for most other nutrients
b. The increased needs are similar at the beginning and end of pregnancy
c. The needs increase by similar amounts in teenagers and 30-year-old women
d. Carbohydrates should supply a minimum of 135 g and ideally 175 g per day.
their roles in the synthesis of red blood cells?
a. Protein and chromium
b. Folate and vitamin B12
c. Calcium and vitamin A
d. Vitamin E and vitamin C
consumed by a 135-pound woman during pregnancy?
a. 49 g
b. 74 g
c. 108 g
d. 135 g
pregnancy, often because of low body stores?
a. Iron
b. Protein
c. Vitamin D
d. Vitamin B6
a. the mineral is conserved during this period.
b. absorption of the mineral increases due to higher blood transferrin.
c. most women enter pregnancy with adequate stores of the mineral.
d. stores of the mineral are transferred to the fetus even with low dietary intake.
a. typical intakes are lower than the recommended amount.
b. supplements are effective in preventing neural tube defects.
c. a secondary deficiency may develop when iron supplements are taken.
d. the mineral is needed for nucleic acid synthesis and thus cell development.
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absorption?
a. Salt and sugar
b. Protein and fat
c. Calcium and iron
d. Thiamin and ascorbic acid
a. The AI increases by over 100%
b. Intestinal absorption increases substantially
c. Supplements are required for most women due to the increased needs
d. Transfer of calcium from maternal stores to the fetus increases rapidly at the
beginning of the second trimester and falls during the last trimester
a. Calcium intakes usually meet the recommendations
b. The AI for calcium is the same as in nonpregnancy
c. Calcium absorption efficiency is the same as in nonpregnancy
d. Calcification of the fetal skeleton begins during the 14th week of pregnancy
fortified milk and
a. low-mercury fish.
b. exposure to the sun.
c. tropical fruit juices.
d. vitamin D supplements.
supplement is advised?
a. 150
b. 300
c. 600
d. 1000
Breakfast
Lunch
Supper
• 2 scrambled eggs
• 1 crushed wheat English
muffin
• 1 cup orange juice
• 2 pieces (4 oz) fried
chicken
• 2 wheat rolls w/butter
• ½ cup mashed potatoes
and gravy
• Iced tea
• 3 oz pork chop
• 1 ear corn on the cob
• Lettuce and tomato salad
with 2 tbsp dressing
• 1 slice bread
According to the recommended food intake for pregnancy, which of the following food
groups is the only one that is provided in sufficient amounts by this menu?
a. Milk
b. Meats
c. Vegetables
d. Bread/cereal
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mother’s nutrient reserves, what is the optimal interval between pregnancies?
a. ½ year
b. 1 year
c. 1 ½-2 years
d. 3-4 years
lactation?
a. Vegan diets require supplements of selenium, zinc, and manganese
b. Breast milk from vegetarian women is lower in protein but higher in fiber
c. It is possible that a vegetarian diet can support a healthy pregnancy and normal
lactation
d. The increase in appetite during pregnancy allows a vegan pregnant woman to easily
meet or exceed her energy requirements
a. nausea.
b. heartburn.
c. constipation.
d. low blood pressure.
except
a. eat dry toast or dry crackers.
b. avoid milk when feeling nauseated.
c. avoid orange juice when feeling nauseated.
d. eat large, infrequent meals so as to limit contact time with food.
heartburn?
a. Eat many small meals
b. Drink fluids only with meals
c. Exercise within 30 minutes after eating
d. Lie down within 15 minutes after eating
pregnancy?
a. A craving for pickles is a strong indicator that the body needs salt
b. A craving for milk is a strong indicator that the body needs calcium and/or
phosphorus
c. Careful and appropriate selection of foods can meet all nutrient needs for most
women
d. Cravings and aversions to certain foods are probably the result of altered taste and
smell sensitivities induced by hormones
a. they are especially common in African-Americans.
b. they are often associated with iron-deficiency anemia.
c. they commonly include consumption of freezer frost and clay.
d. they are known to lead to premature delivery and to low-birth-weight infants.
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revealed her strange cravings. The doctor declared that Jane is experiencing pica, which
is causing her intense craving for
a. dirt.
b. garlic.
c. pickles.
d. pepperoni.
a. A change in hormones
b. A hypoglycemic episode
c. A physiologic need for fluid
d. A physiologic need for sodium
a. pica.
b. bulimia.
c. toxemia.
d. hyperemesis.
Questions for Section 15.5 High-Risk Pregnancies
a. 3½ lbs or less
b. 4 lbs or less
c. 5½ lbs or less
d. 6½ lbs or less
a. 3 ½ lbs or less
b. 4 ½ lbs or less
c. 5 ½ lbs or less
d. 6 ½ lbs or less
except
a. it usually results in macrosomia.
b. it may lead to cessation of menstruation.
c. it may result in a poorly developed placenta.
d. it results in more complications during pregnancy in both overweight and
underweight women.
a. It increases the risk for delivery of a low-birth-weight infant
b. Around the time of conception, it increases the risk for birth defects
c. It increases the risk for adverse effects on the child and, if the child is a female, on
her children
d. Around the time of conception, it prevents the uterus from developing fully but
spares the placenta
a. A serious neural tube defect
b. The World Intervention and Conception program of the United Nations
c. An environmental contaminant that may interfere with breast milk production
d. A food and nutrition services program for pregnant women, children, and infants
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a. The number of children in the program is capped at 2 million
b. It is strictly remedial and available chiefly to women living in the inner city
c. It offers assistance to all at-risk pregnant women regardless of economic means
d. It saves an estimated $3 in medical costs in the first two months after birth for every
dollar spent
consuming a diet containing 60% of energy from carbohydrates. If she does not make
appropriate dietary changes, she is at high risk for developing
a. preeclampsia.
b. gestational diabetes.
c. preexisting diabetes.
d. preexisting hypertension.
a. A severe form of type 1 diabetes in newborns
b. Abnormal blood glucose maintenance during pregnancy
c. Reactive hypoglycemia expressed during the third trimester of pregnancy
d. A temporary loss of insulin secretion during the first trimester of pregnancy
a. It predicts risk of diabetes for the infant
b. It occurs in over one-half of normal weight women
c. It leads to adult-onset diabetes in about a third of the women
d. It occurs more often in women with a history of having premature births
a. Asian ancestry is a risk factor.
b. infant birthweights are typically low.
c. it usually develops during the second half of pregnancy.
d. the most common consequences include labor and delivery complications.
protein in the urine of a pregnant woman?
a. Preeclampsia
b. Gestational diabetes
c. Teratogenic hypertension
d. Pregnancy-induced blood pressure crisis
a. first half of pregnancy.
b. second half of pregnancy.
c. first month after delivery.
d. first trimester of pregnancy.
a. edema.
b. diabetes.
c. proteinuria.
d. high blood pressure.
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a. 1
b. 2
c. 3
d. 4
a. It often diminishes fetal growth
b. It is a disorder of genetic predisposition
c. It almost always progresses slowly to eclampsia
d. It is much more prevalent in black women than white women
a. Convulsions by the mother
b. Convulsions by the newborn
c. Low blood pressure in the mother
d. Low blood pressure in the newborn
a. The recommended weight gain is approximately 35 lbs
b. The incidence of stillbirths and preterm births is 5-10% lower compared with adult
women
c. The incidence of pregnancy-induced hypertension is 5-10% lower compared with
older women
d. The time in labor is usually shorter than for older women because there are fewer
overweight teenagers
a. Bed rest
b. Exercise
c. Low-protein diets
d. Vitamin B12 supplementation
pregnant women except
a. maternal mortality rates are lower.
b. fetal mortality rates are twice as high.
c. cesarean delivery is twice as common.
d. complications that arise typically reflect chronic conditions such as diabetes and
hypertension.
years old compared with a 20 year old?
a. One-half as much
b. About the same
c. 25 times higher
d. 100 times higher
defects?
a. Toxigenic
b. Mutagenic
c. Neonagenic
d. Teratogenic
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been issued by the U.S. Surgeon General?
a. They should drink absolutely no alcohol
b. They should refrain from drinking hard liquor only
c. They are permitted to ingest no more than 2 drinks per day
d. They are permitted to ingest small amounts of alcohol during the first 3 months but
none thereafter
a. SIDS.
b. fetal death.
c. macrosomia.
d. vaginal bleeding.
eliminated during pregnancy except
a. cigarette smoking.
b. weight-loss dieting.
c. artificial sweeteners.
d. alcohol consumption.
include all of the following except
a. smoking during pregnancy increases the risk of vaginal bleeding.
b. chewing tobacco during pregnancy leads to lower-birthweight infants.
c. smoking during pregnancy increases the risk of sudden infant death syndrome.
d. taking zinc supplements prevents the development of pregnancy-induced
hypertension in smokers.
following behaviors during pregnancy?
a. Lack of exercise
b. High fish intake
c. Cigarette smoking
d. Vitamin C supplements
a. The risk for listeriosis is substantially higher in pregnant women than in other
healthy adults
b. Consumption of smoked seafood is permitted due to the beneficial effects of smoke
residue on microorganisms
c. Fish intake should be minimized due to the high lead content and susceptibility of
the fetal central nervous system
d. Foodborne pathogenic organisms are less likely to cause infection during pregnancy
if the dietary intake of calcium is adequate
a. Mercury, but not lead, can easily cross the placenta
b. The adverse effects of lead can be reduced by liberal intakes of calcium
c. Pregnant women are advised to limit consumption of shark and swordfish to no more
than once per week
d. Pregnant women are advised to avoid shellfish around the critical period of brain
development but may resume normal intake thereafter
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a. worsen edema.
b. increase the risk of infant death.
c. increase the risk of birth defects.
d. increase the risk of stillborn infants.
Questions for Section 15.6 Nutrition during Lactation
mother?
a. Cessation of lactation
b. Reduced quality of milk
c. Reduced quantity of milk
d. Reduced quality and quantity of milk
a. It reverses the effects of certain mutagens
b. It reverses the effects of certain teratogens
c. It acts on mammary glands to stimulate milk release
d. It acts on mammary glands to promote milk production
a. Oxytocin
b. Estrongen
c. Prepartum amenorrhea
d. Postpartum amenorrhea
the first six months of lactation is approximately
a. 100.
b. 250.
c. 500.
d. 1000.
wheat bagel with strawberry jelly every night in addition to her nutrient–dense diet. Why
did Penny receive this advice?
a. Bagels are a way of getting more kcalories in the diet
b. Bagels provide the extra protein lactating mothers need for lactose production
c. Babies prefer the strawberry jelly in the mother’s diet as it alters the taste of the
breast milk
d. These bagels provide the extra carbohydrates and fiber lactating mothers need for
lactose production
exercised intensely compared with sedentary lactating women?
a. They had similar energy intakes
b. Their milk was more nutrient-dense
c. They had a slightly greater amount of body fat
d. Their milk contained more lactate, which altered the milk’s taste
a. Breast milk protein content may be enhanced by moderate exercise
b. The volume of breast milk may be increased by drinking plenty of fluid
c. The iron content of breast milk may be increased by taking iron supplements
d. Breast milk quantity but not quality is most affected by nutritional inadequacies
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a. To improve the flavor of breast milk
b. To increase iron content of breast milk
c. To replace the iron stores she lost during pregnancy
d. To account for the re-start of menstruation that usually occurs 1-2 months
postpartum
lactation?
a. Milk production is increased by higher fluid intake
b. Ingestion of garlic may lead to an off-flavor of the milk
c. Inadequate protein intake lowers the protein concentration of the milk
d. The energy RDA for milk production calls for an additional 1000 kcalories per day
a. abused alcohol.
b. a drug addiction.
c. an ordinary cold.
d. a communicable disease.
production?
a. The milk produced by mothers who smoke contains nicotine
b. Cigarette smoking reduces the quality but not the quantity of breast milk
c. Infants of breastfeeding mothers who smoke gain excessive weight consisting mainly
of abdominal adipose tissue
d. The smell and flavors of breast milk from mothers who smoke do not alter volume
consumed until the infant reaches 3 months of age
a. Alcohol easily enters breast milk
b. Alcohol actually stimulates lactation
c. Infants drink slightly more breast milk when the mother consumes up to 1 drink per
day
d. The small amounts of alcohol that are secreted along with breast milk stimulate
infant digestion
a. It does not pass into the breast milk
b. It hinders the infant’s ability to breastfeed
c. It mildly stimulates breast milk production
d. It passes into the breast milk but is degraded by enzymes in breast tissue
a. It alters the flavor
b. It stimulates lactation
c. It passes into the breast milk and stimulates the infant’s acceptance
d. It first appears in the breast milk approximately 12 hours after ingestion
a. It stimulates milk production
b. It conserves iron in the mother
c. It stimulates the let-down reflex
d. It stimulates the suckling reflex in the infant
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a. Caffeine enters breast milk
b. Caffeine in breast milk may irritate the infant
c. The A.M.A. recommends no caffeine intake during lactation
d. If consumed, the amount should be no more than 2 cups of coffee daily
Questions for Section 15.7 Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
fetal development?
a. Birth defects are most severe when the woman drinks around the time of conception
b. Infants born with fetal alcohol syndrome typically show immediate signs of brain
impairment
c. Eating well and maintaining adequate nutrient stores will prevent alcohol-induced
placenta damage
d. Toxicity to the fetus begins to occur when fetal blood alcohol levels rise above
maternal blood alcohol levels
except
a. prenatal alcohol exposure.
b. fetal alcohol spectrum disorder.
c. fetal subdevelopment syndrome.
d. alcohol-related neurodevelopmental disorder.
complications?
a. The children often go undiagnosed
b. The children often show growth retardation
c. Few of the children show problem behaviors
d. All children born with these complications show marked outward signs
a. Before conception
b. First trimester
c. Second trimester
d. Third trimester
giving birth to an infant with fetal alcohol syndrome?
a. 1 drink/day
b. 2 drinks/day
c. 4 drinks/day
d. 7 drinks/week
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Matching
K 494 01. A newly fertilized ovum
O 494 02. Fluid in which the fetus floats
L 496 03. Developing infant from 2 to 8 weeks after conception
D 496 04. Number of days after conception during which the neural tube is highly vulnerable to
nutrient deficiency
A 497 05. Percentage of U.S. newborns with a neural tube defect
J 498 06. Adequate intakes of this nutrient within the 30 days prior to conception are especially
important to lower risk of birth defects
P 499 07. Most reliable indicator of an infant’s health
G 500 08. An infant born prior to this number of weeks of pregnancy is classified as preterm
F 501 09. Upper limit for the recommended number of pounds that a pregnant woman of normal
weight should gain
C 502 10. Approximate weight, in pounds, of average newborn baby
E 505 11. Number of grams of extra protein per day recommended for the pregnant woman
H 506 12. Dietary supplements of this nutrient are recommended for the last 6 months of pregnancy
S 508 13. A recommended practice to prevent or relieve heartburn
T 508 14. A recommended practice to prevent or alleviate constipation
I 508 15. A craving for non-food substances
Q 511 16. A condition characterized by high blood pressure and protein in the urine
N 512 17. A condition characterized by convulsions
B 513 18. Percentage of U.S. babies born with genetic abnormalities from older mothers
M 513 19. Excess intake of this substance in pregnancy is known to result in mental retardation of
the child
R 516 20. A practice that conserves maternal iron stores
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Essay
Page(s)
494 01. What is the role of the placenta and how does it develop?
494–496 02. Describe the three major stages of fetal growth and development.
496–497 03. Discuss the term “critical periods” in relation to pregnancy.
497 04. List factors that increase risk for giving birth to an infant with a neural tube defect.
498–499 05. What is the U.S. government’s rationale for requiring the fortification of grain
products with folate?
500 06. Discuss the association between maternal malnutrition and the increased risk for
development of diabetes in her offspring.
500 07. Discuss the association between maternal nutrition and the risk for development of
chronic diseases in her child.
500 08. What are several benefits of exercise specifically for the pregnant woman? What
types of exercise should be avoided and why?
500;509-510 09. Discuss the influence of prenatal malnutrition on the appearance of degenerative
diseases in the later life of the child.
499–500 10. Discuss the consequences of being overweight or obese at the time of pregnancy.
501–502 11. Compare the recommended weight gains for pregnancy in women who, at
conception, are normal weight, underweight, overweight, or obese.
503–509 12. Discuss the changes in macronutrient needs in pregnancy.
505 13. Discuss the impact of adequate intake of fatty acids by the pregnant woman on fetal
development.
505–507 14. What nutrients are needed in greater amounts during pregnancy and what physical
changes account for the increased needs?
506 15. Discuss the relationship between vitamin C intake and iron absorption from the diet
and from iron supplements in pregnant women.
507 16. Discuss important concerns of vegetarian diets during pregnancy or lactation.
508 17. What steps can be taken to minimize the development and discomfort of nausea,
heartburn, and constipation during pregnancy?
508 18. Discuss food cravings and food aversions that develop in some women who become
pregnant.
509 19. List the complications experienced by low-birthweight infants.
509 20. Discuss six factors and conditions that lead to high-risk pregnancies
510 21. Describe the consequences of malnutrition on conception and early pregnancy.
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510 22. Discuss the role of WIC programs for women in high-risk pregnancies. Why is WIC
so effective?
511 23. Define gestational diabetes and list risk factors. How is it managed?
511 24. Explain the development of pregnancy-induced hypertension and the consequences if
it is not properly managed.
511–512 25. Describe the condition known as preeclampsia. What are its risk factors and what is
known about its prevention?
512 26. Describe the risks associated with adolescent pregnancy.
512–513 27. Describe the risks associated with pregnancy in older women.
513–514 28. What practices should be avoided during pregnancy and why?
513–514 29. Discuss the effects of tobacco use in the pregnant woman and its effects on health of
the newborn.
514 30. Provide examples of the effects of environmental contaminants on pregnancy
outcomes.
516–517 31. List the benefits of breastfeeding for the infant and for the mother.
517 32. Outline 8 steps to successful breastfeeding.
517–518 33. Explain the energy needs for breastfeeding in light of the mother’s desire to lose the
extra weight from pregnancy.
518 34. Discuss the effects of maternal intake of insufficient nutrients on the quantity and
quality of breast milk.
519 35. Give examples of associations between maternal food choices and breast milk flavor.
520 36. Discuss the consequences of maternal alcohol intake on fetal development.
520 37. Discuss the effects of maternal tobacco use on breastfeeding.
525–527 38. Describe the physical and mental abnormalities associated with fetal alcohol
syndrome.
526 39. Describe distinguishing facial characteristics associated with fetal alcohol syndrome.
527 40. Compare and contrast the features of prenatal alcohol exposure with those of fetal
alcohol syndrome.